LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

Note.—If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction to them.

For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:

With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new interest in its political life was awakened, new movements inaugurated. These were along three lines—one, political with responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third, educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is known as the struggle for Responsible Government—the struggle for equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the Clergy Reserves—the struggle for equal religious rights; the third as the University Question—the struggle for non-denominational control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson played a very prominent part and, because these affected the politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.Note.—For purposes of reference, consultThe Story of My Lifeby Dr. Ryerson;The Ryerson Memorial Volumeby Dr. J.G. Hodgins;Egerton Ryersonby Nathaniel Burwash inThe Makers of Canada; andEgerton Ryersonby J.H. Putnam.

Note.—For purposes of reference, consultThe Story of My Lifeby Dr. Ryerson;The Ryerson Memorial Volumeby Dr. J.G. Hodgins;Egerton Ryersonby Nathaniel Burwash inThe Makers of Canada; andEgerton Ryersonby J.H. Putnam.

The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day, and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of theDay. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."

Teacher.—Did you notice the two places that were to be connected by the road?Pupil.—They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.T.—Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?P.—Because it is near the sea.T.—Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.P.—It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.T.—Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?P.—It freezes up.T.—Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter, and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?P.—Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.T.—We can tell better a little later which one was actually chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?P.—Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.T.—Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we send our goods to Europe now in winter?(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)T.—You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?P.—By using the canals.T.—How can we ship by rail?P.—By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.T.—Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as the western terminus of the new railway?P.—Yes, Quebec would be the one.T.—Why?P.—Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for sending their goods as far as Quebec city.T.—The next point to think about is—How had Canada been shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible. Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through the United States.)T.—Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of wanting to build a railway of their own?P.—The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.T.—Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely. This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils are told here about the "Trent"and "Alabama" affairs, and the Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway was needed from Quebec to Halifax?P.—Because there was danger of war, and because the United States might interfere with Canadian trade.T.—There were both military and commercial reasons. We have found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out is—Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it done, what route would you be likely to follow?P.—I think I should take the shortest way.T.—Where would the road go then?(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)Tell where it would run.P.—Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.T.—Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the reasons for building it at all.P.—They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is in the United States.T.—What is the next way they might think of?P.—The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)P.—From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine, into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.T.—Would they take that way?P.—No, because it is too near the border of the United States.T.—Why do you say "too near"?P.—If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear up the rails.T.—As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?P.—They would stay as far from the border as possible.T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)P.—They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.T.—How far?P.—Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to Halifax.T.—Would that be the cheapest line to build?P.—It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.T.—It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as far from the border as they could?P.—The military reason.T.—Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most interested in the military considerations?P.—Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.T.—Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where would the money come from?P.—Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.T.—Why?P.—Because there were not very many people here then.T.—Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was to be built.

Teacher.—Did you notice the two places that were to be connected by the road?

Pupil.—They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.

T.—Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?

P.—Because it is near the sea.

T.—Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.

P.—It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.

T.—Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?

P.—It freezes up.

T.—Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter, and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?

P.—Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.

T.—We can tell better a little later which one was actually chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?

P.—Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.

T.—Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we send our goods to Europe now in winter?

(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)

T.—You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?

P.—By using the canals.

T.—How can we ship by rail?

P.—By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.

T.—Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as the western terminus of the new railway?

P.—Yes, Quebec would be the one.

T.—Why?

P.—Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for sending their goods as far as Quebec city.

T.—The next point to think about is—How had Canada been shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?

(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible. Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through the United States.)

T.—Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of wanting to build a railway of their own?

P.—The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.

T.—Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely. This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils are told here about the "Trent"and "Alabama" affairs, and the Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway was needed from Quebec to Halifax?

P.—Because there was danger of war, and because the United States might interfere with Canadian trade.

T.—There were both military and commercial reasons. We have found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out is—Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it done, what route would you be likely to follow?

P.—I think I should take the shortest way.

T.—Where would the road go then?

(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)

Tell where it would run.

P.—Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.

T.—Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the reasons for building it at all.

P.—They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is in the United States.

T.—What is the next way they might think of?

P.—The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.

T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)

P.—From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine, into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

T.—Would they take that way?

P.—No, because it is too near the border of the United States.

T.—Why do you say "too near"?

P.—If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear up the rails.

T.—As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?

P.—They would stay as far from the border as possible.

T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)

P.—They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.

T.—How far?

P.—Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to Halifax.

T.—Would that be the cheapest line to build?

P.—It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.

T.—It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as far from the border as they could?

P.—The military reason.

T.—Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most interested in the military considerations?

P.—Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.

T.—Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where would the money come from?

P.—Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.

T.—Why?

P.—Because there were not very many people here then.

T.—Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was to be built.

The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles), and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized, that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer together, and that other railways have since been built on the two rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand Trunk Pacific.

The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.

1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of the road2. Reasons for building the road(a) Military(b) Commercial3. Selection of the route(a) Routes that were possible(b) Reasons for the final choice4. Facts about the road(a) Principal places on the road(b) Branches of the road(c) Length and cost5. Value of the road to the new Dominion

1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of the road

2. Reasons for building the road

(a) Military(b) Commercial

3. Selection of the route

(a) Routes that were possible(b) Reasons for the final choice

4. Facts about the road

(a) Principal places on the road(b) Branches of the road(c) Length and cost

5. Value of the road to the new Dominion

The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and the chief commercial centres served by the railway.

Note.—This lesson should be preceded by an information lesson on the making of cotton goods—the material, how and where the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.

The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of wealth thatenabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon. The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation, in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at such length.

This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention would be needed next. The oral method—both pure narrative, and development—is supposed to be used.

1.Domestic System of Manufacture.—Before 1760 the manufacture of cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where, with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.

2.Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny.—The first important invention of the period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was returning fromthe dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle, usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight). From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used to-day.

3.Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame.Sir Richard Arkwright invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.

4.The Mule.In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to weave any grade of cloth.

5.The Power-loom.The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners could make.

6.The Steam-engine.These machines were run by hand or water-power. In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.

7.The Cotton-gin.Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern States that led to the Civil War.

8.Coal-mining and Smelting.These machines were made of iron, and coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.

9.The Safety Lamp.Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these explosions.

10.Transportation.Now that there was so much manufacturing carried on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)

Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in 1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800 many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.

11.Agriculture.The number of people engaged in the factories was increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger; better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the exhaustion of the soil.

12.Social Conditions.Out of the factory system grew the division of classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.

We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."

Note.—The teacher may refer to some of the modern social problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance, decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, seeA History of the British Nation, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, Edinburgh.)

The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the East—India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)—led to the discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show the development of history along a certain line.

The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used frequently.

One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.

In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up, carried on principally by the great Italian cities—Venice, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Milan—and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean, the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern trade, and kept for a time the other western nations—Spain, Portugal, France, and England—from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediæval castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of knowledge.

The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.

Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez Canal was notopened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.

Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more complete solution.

Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean—a route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal. The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer; but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile he was enabled to put his dream to the test.

A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus—his efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's Poem, "Columbus,"High School Reader, pp. 143-145.

When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought he had found what he had set out to find—the eastern country of India; and he believedit all his life. This idea survived for several generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their chief ambition.

In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South Carolina, with the same object.

In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspé and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the gateway to the East.

With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.

Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked. A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the West, that he wasat last successful. He wintered there, and when the ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son, and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of again. (SeeThe Story of the British Peoplepp. 234-235.)

The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on Montreal Island was calledLa Chine(the French word for China), in allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.

Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of what is now Canada. Vérendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands; also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.

Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West Company—Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne—amid great hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.

It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it has been our lot to accomplish.

Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up afterwards; for example, the opening of the SuezCanal and its effect on trade—why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.

The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and development methods.

For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book isA History of the British Nation, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, Edinburgh.

1.Political.—(a) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.

(The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlandswere in full revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)

(b) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off negotiations of marriage with Philip.

2.Commercial.—Interference of the English in the New World, to which Spain claimed sole right.

(This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)

3.Religious.—Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.

(This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)

1. Preparations in Spain and England.

(Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the eve of battle should be made.)

2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.

(The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were defending their homes; they forgot theirreligious and political differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless, and most skilful in handling their ships.)

3. The affair at Cadiz.

(Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)

4. The battle in the Channel.

(Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588; fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance for a vivid description by the teacher.)

5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.

(Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley'sWestward Ho!)

1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (a)]

2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.

3. Greater religious tolerance in England.

4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.

5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals of political, social, and religious liberty.

(SeeP.S. History of England, secs. 135-142.)

(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)

Aim.To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.

1.Introduction.By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm; from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a florist's business, a rink, etc.

2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in theOntario Public School History of England, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.

(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)

1.The Saxon System:Further study of the early land tenure of the Saxons. (SeeOntario High School History of England, p. 33.) The following extract from Oman'sEngland before the Norman Conquestmay be of assistance:

The typical free settlement of an Englishmaegth(or kindred) consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow strips, of which each householdpossessed several, next of the almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter, and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some seasons.The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year, fallow—to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.

The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year, fallow—to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.

Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (P.S. Hist. of Eng., pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (P.S. Hist. of Eng., p. 37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the freeman.

2.The Courts: TheWitan, which could displace the king for certain reasons, theShireorfolk-moot, and theTun-moot; their powers; the people looked to these courts for justice.

3.Changebrought about by Danish raids—small freeholders sought protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small landowners to "eorls."

The Feudal System in France:(Read Scott'sQuentin Durward.) Barons too powerful for the king for various reasons:

1. Their property was large and compact.

2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.

3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.

By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would probably do to strengthen his own position.

The Feudal System under William:(Note the innovations of William.)

1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.

2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)

3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.

4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.

5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.

6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.

7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.

The important points of each step should be written on the black-board as they are described or developed.

(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another lesson.)

The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the development of the country; and to increase their interest in the present system of tenure.

In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it. Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in Canada. Then the evils connected with thissystem may be presented as another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what cost.

The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development, or problem, methods.

1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (SeeOntario Public School History, Chapter IX, alsoOntario High School History of Canada, Chap. VIII.)

2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure, which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service. Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles. An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. Theseseigniors, as they were called, had great powers within their domains. This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in France, called the Feudal System.

At this point the teacher might give a short description of the Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in comparison with the lords.

3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year 1527. He had two objects in view: (a) to create a Canadian aristocracy, (b) to establish an easy system of dividing land among settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became his vassal, and in turn made grants to thecensitaires, those who held their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires securedhabitantsto cultivate the soil.

4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and the most gallant defenders of New France.

5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came over after the American Revolution. The English disliked theFrench method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had been abolished in England.)

6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished, the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was introduced.

7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:

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