LESSON III

Note.—One cake of compressed yeast contains about the same number of yeast plants as one cake of dry yeast or one cup of liquid yeast.

Process in making bread:

(1) Mixing (stirring, beating, and kneading).—

(a) This mixes the ingredients.(b) It incorporates air to aid the yeast plant and to act as a lightening agent.(c) It makes the gluten elastic.

(2) First rising.—This allows the yeast plants conditions and time to produce carbonic acid gas, until the dough is distended to twice its original size.

(3) Moulding.—(a) This distributes the gas evenly throughout the loaf.

(b) It shapes the loaf.

(4) Second rising.—This again allows the yeast plants time to produce gas which will distend the dough to twice its size.

(5) Baking.—(a) The heat of the oven expands the air and gas in the dough, which causes the gluten framework to distend.

(b) The water changes to steam, which becomes another agent in distending the gluten.(c) The starch on the outside of the loaf becomes brown in the dry heat of the oven, while the inside starch is made soluble in the moist heat of the mixture.(d) The gluten stiffens into the distended shape.(e) The yeast plants are killed.

In this lesson, after deciding on the necessary ingredients, the pupils may be told the amount of each to use for their class work. They should then measure and mix these ingredients and set the dough away for the first rising. While the bread is rising, the kitchen may be put in order and the other steps of the process reasoned out and written.

Other school work must be taken then, until the dough has fully risen, when the process may be completed. After each stage of the process has been carried out, the notes on it may be written.

With the foregoing principles of bread-making in mind, the class should be able to make any bread mixture. Each pupil should have entire responsibility for the process of making one small loaf of plain bread. About half a cup of liquid, mixed with the other necessary ingredients, makes a good-sized loaf for practice. Smaller loaves than this give little chance for manipulation.

In Household Management centres, where the pupils come from other schools for the lesson period only, the process will have to be divided into two lessons. The first lesson may include the first two stages—mixing and first rising—each pupil using small quantities, say for one eighth of a loaf of the ordinary size. At the end of the lesson, they may carry their dough home for completion,or it may be used by another class which is ready for the later steps of the process.

The second lesson will include the last three steps—moulding, second rising, and baking—and it will be necessary for the teacher to have dough prepared for the moulding stage when the class arrives.

These mixtures are but variations of plain bread. The extra ingredients, such as milk, eggs, butter, spices, sugar, currants, raisins, peel, etc., are added at the most convenient stage of the process.

Note.—If there is not time to have one fancy bread, such as Parker House rolls or currant bread, made in school, recipes for these may be discussed in class and the work done at home.

1. This utensil mixes and beats the bread by means of a large beater turned with a handle, thus avoiding the use of the hands for this purpose.

2. It does this work with less energy and in a much shorter time than if the hands were used.

3. It can be used only for the first two steps of bread-making, namely,mixingandfirst rising.

4. The ingredients must all be put in at once; hence, they must be accurately measured.

5. The amount of ingredients may be learned by calculation from previous bread-making done in the old way, or by using the book of recipes accompanying each mixer.

Note.—There are several good kinds of bread-mixers which may be bought in three sizes. Small size makes 1 to 2 loaves and costs $1.35 (about). Medium size makes 2 to 6 loaves and costs $2.00 (about). Large size makes 4 to 10 loaves and costs $2.50 (about).

Pastry is one of the simplest flour mixtures, and one that has the lowest food value. The intimate blending of butter or lard with the flour envelopes the starch grains with fat, and makes the mixture difficult to digest. The same thing occurs in frying food and in buttering hot toast; so the idea is not a new one to the class.

In introducing the lesson on pastry, this principle of digestion should be reviewed, and it should be made plain that delicate pudding and seasonable fruits are a much better form of dessert.

There are no new principles to teach, but some old ones to impress. The object of the housekeeper should be to make a mixture that is light and one that will fall to pieces easily. To ensure the latter, anything that would toughen the gluten must be avoided.

From the bread lesson, the pupils have learned that working the water into the gluten or much handling of flour after it is wet, makes a mixture firm and tough. In pastry there must be enough gluten to stick the ingredients together, but its elastic quality is undesirable. For the latter reason also, a small amount of water is used.

In the cake mixtures, it was found that the use of fat in the "butter cakes" made the framework tender and easily broken, so in pastry the same means may be employed. Fat of some kind is mixed with the flour to act on the gluten and destroy its toughness.

Air and steam are the only lightening agents commonly used in pastry. Since cold air occupies less room than warm air and admits of more expansion, it is desirable that the mixture be kept very cold. The low temperature also prevents the fat melting; hence, the necessity for the use of cold utensils and materials throughout the process.

1. Ingredients:

(1) Flour, (2) salt, (3) fat, (4) water.

2. Notes on flour:

(1) Use only pastry flour, which will have a small amount of gluten.(2) After the flour is wet, handle the mixture as little as possible, to avoid working the water into the gluten and making it tough.

(1) Use only pastry flour, which will have a small amount of gluten.

(2) After the flour is wet, handle the mixture as little as possible, to avoid working the water into the gluten and making it tough.

3. Notes on fat:

(1) Fat is used to destroy the elasticity of the gluten, so that it will not be tough when cooked.(2) Butter, lard, or dripping may be used.(3) Lard makes more tender pastry than butter.(4) Butter gives the best flavour.(5) Half butter and half lard makes a good mixture.(6) Layers of fat may be put in between layers of pastry, to separate it into flakes.(7) If two fats are used, the softer is cut into the flour, and the harder one laid on the paste and folded in.

(1) Fat is used to destroy the elasticity of the gluten, so that it will not be tough when cooked.

(2) Butter, lard, or dripping may be used.

(3) Lard makes more tender pastry than butter.

(4) Butter gives the best flavour.

(5) Half butter and half lard makes a good mixture.

(6) Layers of fat may be put in between layers of pastry, to separate it into flakes.

(7) If two fats are used, the softer is cut into the flour, and the harder one laid on the paste and folded in.

4. Notes on water:

(1) Use the water as cold as possible.(2) Use the least amount of water necessary to make the ingredients adhere.

(1) Use the water as cold as possible.

(2) Use the least amount of water necessary to make the ingredients adhere.

5. Lightening agents used in pastry:

(1) Air.—(a) This should be as cold as possible.(b) The air may he folded in, between layers of pastry.(2) Steam.

(1) Air.—(a) This should be as cold as possible.

(b) The air may he folded in, between layers of pastry.

(2) Steam.

6. Kinds of pastry:

(1) Plain pastry.—In this, one quarter to one third as much fat as flour is used, and it is all "cut in".(2) Flaky pastry.—In this, the same amount of fat is used as in plain pastry, but half of it is "laid on" and folded in.(3) Puff pastry.—In this, one half as much fat as flour, up to equal parts of each is used; one quarter of the fat is cut in, and the remainder is laid on and folded in.

(1) Plain pastry.—In this, one quarter to one third as much fat as flour is used, and it is all "cut in".

(2) Flaky pastry.—In this, the same amount of fat is used as in plain pastry, but half of it is "laid on" and folded in.

(3) Puff pastry.—In this, one half as much fat as flour, up to equal parts of each is used; one quarter of the fat is cut in, and the remainder is laid on and folded in.

7. Amount of ingredients for plain pastry for one pie:

1-1/2 cup pastry flour; 1/4 tsp. salt; 1/2 cup fat (lard and butter); ice water.

As meatis rather a complex food the teaching of which involves a good many lessons, and as it does not lend itself as well as other foods to the making of dishes useful in practice work, it seems wise to defer the study of it until the Senior Form is reached; the ability and home needs of the pupils should decide this. The season of the year should also be considered. It is wiser to take meat lessons in cold weather because it is then more pleasant to handle and easier to keep. The latter consideration is important in some rural districts, where shops are not convenient.

More preparation is needed for the first meat lesson than for most foods. Some days before, thin bones such as leg or wing bones of fowl, or rib bones of lamb should be soaked in diluted hydrochloric or nitric acid (one part acid to ten of water), to dissolve the mineral substance which gives the bone its rigidity.

Any time before the lesson, a large solid bone of an old animal, such as a knee or hip joint of beef, should be burned for hours to get rid of the connective tissue which holds the mineral substance in shape. This should be carefully done, in order to retain the shape of the bone and to show the porous formation of the mineral substance. If the bone is not blackened by the fire, its white colour will also indicate the lime of which it is formed.

On the day of the lesson it will be necessary to have a piece of meat showing the three parts—fat, bone, and muscle. A lower cut of the round of beef has all these parts, and the muscle is sufficiently tough to show its connective tissue plainly. For the study of fat, a piece of suet is best, as it can be easily picked apart to show its formation.

In examining fat meat and lean meat it is essential that, at least, every two pupils have a piece, as close scrutiny is necessary. One or two samples of bone will suffice for the class.

No definite amount of work can be laid down for any one lesson. The interest and ability of the class must be the guide. In rural schools, the time of each lesson must be comparatively short, though no Household Management teacher should spend more than forty minutes on purely theoretical work without a change of some kind.

The following is an outline of the facts to be considered in this particular study:

1. Names of meat:

(1) Beef, from the ox or cow. The best meat comes from an animal about four years old.(2) Veal, from the calf. It should be at least six weeks old.(3) Mutton, from the sheep. Spring lamb is from six to eight weeks old; yearling is one year old.(4) Pork, from the pig.(5) Fowl, poultry—chicken, turkey, duck, goose.(6) Game, wild animals—deer, wild duck, partridge, etc.

(1) Beef, from the ox or cow. The best meat comes from an animal about four years old.

(2) Veal, from the calf. It should be at least six weeks old.

(3) Mutton, from the sheep. Spring lamb is from six to eight weeks old; yearling is one year old.

(4) Pork, from the pig.

(5) Fowl, poultry—chicken, turkey, duck, goose.

(6) Game, wild animals—deer, wild duck, partridge, etc.

2. Parts of meat:

(1) Fat.—(a) Inside fat, around the internal organs, usually called kidney fat, or suet.(b) Outside fat, next the skin, called caul fat.(2) Bone, (3) muscle, or lean meat.

(1) Fat.—(a) Inside fat, around the internal organs, usually called kidney fat, or suet.

(b) Outside fat, next the skin, called caul fat.

(2) Bone, (3) muscle, or lean meat.

3. Composition of fat:

(1) Connective tissue, (2) true fat, (3) water.

Fat should be the first part studied, because it is the simplest tissue and the parts are most plainly seen. Pick the specimen apart, and the tissue that holds it together is found. Its name is easily developed from its use.

The water may be shown by heating pieces of fat in a small saucepan and, when it becomes hot, covering the dish with a cold plate. Remove the plate before it gets heated, and moisture will be condensed on its surface. The presence of water in fat may also be reasoned out by remembering that water enters into the composition of all body tissues.

4. Composition of bone:

(1) Mineral matter (lime), (2) connective tissue, (3) water.

Neither the mineral substance nor the connective tissue in bone can be seen until either one or the other is eliminated.

Strike the fresh bone with a steel knife, and it shows the quality of hardness. Bones are built from food, and the only food substance that is so hard is mineral matter. Show the burned bone, with only the mineral matter left, and let each pupil examine it. Its formation indicatesthe spaces which the part burned out of it occupied. Let it fall or crush part of it in the fingers, to show how easily it is broken. Such bones would be no use as a framework to support the body. The bones of very old persons get too much like this, and we are afraid to have such people fall. The burned bone needs something to hold it together—a connective tissue. Such a tissue was in the spaces before the bone was burned.

Show the bone after it has been prepared in an acid solution, with only the connective tissue left. Explain how it was prepared. Bend it to show its pliability. To be of use in the body it needs some substance to make it hard and rigid—the mineral matter which was dissolved out.

Note.—This is an excellent time to show the necessity for bone-building mineral in the diet of babies and young children. If they do not get this mineral substance during the growth period, they cannot have hard, rigid bones, and their bodies are apt to become misshapen—bow legs, curved spines, etc. This substance is also necessary for hard, sound teeth.

Draw attention to the fact that the mineral matter in milk and eggs is in solution, and therefore ready to be used by the body. Mineral matter is not in solution in bone, and cannot be dissolved by the digestive process, therefore it is practically of no use as food.

Compare the connective tissue of bone with that of fat, and let the pupils account for the difference in thickness. Lead them to see that connective tissue can be dissolved in hot water, and in this way may be extracted from the mineral part of bone. The housekeeper may do this herself, or she may buy it already extracted, as gelatine.

5. Composition of muscle:

(1) Connective tissue(2) Red part, made up of microscopic tubes holding a red juice. The juice contains:

(1) Connective tissue

(2) Red part, made up of microscopic tubes holding a red juice. The juice contains:

(a) Water(b) Red colour(c) Flavour(d) Muscle albumen—a protein substance similar to egg-white(e) Mineral matter.

(a) Water

(b) Red colour

(d) Muscle albumen—a protein substance similar to egg-white

(e) Mineral matter.

Muscle fibres highly magnified Bundle of fibres. Tubes of one fibre. Proper carving of fibres—across the grain.

Muscle fibres highly magnifiedBundle of fibres. Tubes of one fibre. Proper carving of fibres—across the grain.

It should be made clear that the walls of such tiny tubes can never be thick enough to be tough. Attention should be called to the real cause of toughness—the thick connective tissue.

Note.—Very small pieces of meat will serve for specimens. Tough meat is better, because it shows the connective tissue more plainly. When the muscle is being examined, it should be carefully scraped with a knife, until a layer of connective tissue is laid bare. The red part that is scraped off should be explained, and a drawing should be made to illustrate it.

Minced lean beef should he soaked in a little cold water for at least twenty minutes, to extract the muscle juice for examination. The juice should be strained through a cheesecloth and poured into a glass. It shows nothing but water and a red colour.

In order to find the other substances, pour part of the juice into a small saucepan and heat it gradually until it boils gently. The red colour will disappear, and the albumen which is dissolved in the juice will coagulate and become plainly visible. The pupils will recall that egg-white was affected in the same way by heat, and may be told that this coagulated substance is similar to egg-white, and is called muscle albumen. The odour given off by heating suggests that the flavour is also in the muscle juice, hence the importance of conserving this juice in the cooking process.

Strain the boiled juice to get rid of the coagulated albumen and then examine the liquid that is left. Its colour plainly denotes mineral matter in solution.

6. Meat experiments:

If time permit, the following experiments may be taken. The facts which these experiments prove may, however, be developed in a much shorter time by questioning:

(1) Cut lean meat into small pieces, cover them with cold water and let them stand. Note the colour of the water.(2) Cover a piece of lean meat with boiling water and let it stand. Note the colour of the water.(3) Sprinkle a piece of meat with salt. What happens?(4) Wrap a piece of meat for a few minutes in ordinary brown wrapping-paper. What happens?(5) Simmer a small piece of very tough meat for about an hour and then examine the connective tissue.(6) Boil or bake a small piece of very tough meat and then examine the connective tissue.

(1) Cut lean meat into small pieces, cover them with cold water and let them stand. Note the colour of the water.

(2) Cover a piece of lean meat with boiling water and let it stand. Note the colour of the water.

(3) Sprinkle a piece of meat with salt. What happens?

(4) Wrap a piece of meat for a few minutes in ordinary brown wrapping-paper. What happens?

(5) Simmer a small piece of very tough meat for about an hour and then examine the connective tissue.

(6) Boil or bake a small piece of very tough meat and then examine the connective tissue.

7. Selection of meat:

(1) All flesh should be uniform in colour, of a fine grain, and firm and springy to the touch.(2) Beef should be bright red in colour, well mottled, and surrounded with fat.(3) Mutton should be a dull red, and its fat white, hard, and flaky.(4) Lamb is lighter in colour than mutton, and the bone is redder.(5) Veal has pinkish-coloured flesh and white fat. Very pale veal is not good.(6) Pork should have firm flesh of a pale red colour. The skin should be white and clear, the fat white.(7) Poultry:

(1) All flesh should be uniform in colour, of a fine grain, and firm and springy to the touch.

(2) Beef should be bright red in colour, well mottled, and surrounded with fat.

(3) Mutton should be a dull red, and its fat white, hard, and flaky.

(4) Lamb is lighter in colour than mutton, and the bone is redder.

(5) Veal has pinkish-coloured flesh and white fat. Very pale veal is not good.

(6) Pork should have firm flesh of a pale red colour. The skin should be white and clear, the fat white.

(7) Poultry:

(a) Chickens.—Young chickens have thin, sharp nails; smooth legs; soft, thin skin; and soft cartilage at the end of the breastbone. Long hairs denote age.(b) Turkeys.—These should be plump, have smooth, dark legs, and soft cartilage.(c) Geese.—These should be plump and have many pin feathers; they should also have pliable bills and soft feet.

(a) Chickens.—Young chickens have thin, sharp nails; smooth legs; soft, thin skin; and soft cartilage at the end of the breastbone. Long hairs denote age.

(b) Turkeys.—These should be plump, have smooth, dark legs, and soft cartilage.

8. Care of meat:

(1) Remove the meat from the wrapping paper as soon as it arrives, to prevent the loss of juices. The butcher should use waxed paper next to the meat.(2) Wipe the meat all over with a damp cloth, but do not put it into water.(3) Place the meat on an earthen or enamel dish, and set it in a cool place until required.(4) Frozen meat should be thawed in a warm room before being cooked.

(1) Remove the meat from the wrapping paper as soon as it arrives, to prevent the loss of juices. The butcher should use waxed paper next to the meat.

(2) Wipe the meat all over with a damp cloth, but do not put it into water.

(3) Place the meat on an earthen or enamel dish, and set it in a cool place until required.

(4) Frozen meat should be thawed in a warm room before being cooked.

9. General ways of preparing meat:

(1) Extracting certain substances.—(a) Soup—substances extracted in water from lean meat, bone, and fat.(b) Beef-tea—substances extracted in water from lean meat.(c) Bouillon—substances extracted in water from lean meat and flavoured with vegetable.(d) Beef juice—juices extracted from lean meat by heat only, or by pressure.(2) Retaining all substances.—Roasts, boiling pieces, steaks, chops, cutlets.(3) Retaining part and extracting part.—Stews.

(1) Extracting certain substances.—(a) Soup—substances extracted in water from lean meat, bone, and fat.

(b) Beef-tea—substances extracted in water from lean meat.(c) Bouillon—substances extracted in water from lean meat and flavoured with vegetable.(d) Beef juice—juices extracted from lean meat by heat only, or by pressure.

(b) Beef-tea—substances extracted in water from lean meat.

(d) Beef juice—juices extracted from lean meat by heat only, or by pressure.

(2) Retaining all substances.—Roasts, boiling pieces, steaks, chops, cutlets.

(3) Retaining part and extracting part.—Stews.

10. Notes on tough meat:

(1) The toughness of meat depends on the thickness of the connective tissue holding the muscle tubes together.

Cuts of beef 1. Neck, stews and soup. 2. Chuck ribs, cheaper roasts. 3. Prime ribs, very good roasts. 4. Loin, best steaks or roasts (sirloin, tenderloin, porterhouse). 5. Rump, roasts and steak. 6. Brisket, stews or corned beef. 7. Fore shank, soup. 8. Shoulder, stews or pot-roasts. 9. Short ribs, stews or cheap roasts. 10. Navel, corned beef. 11. Plate, stews or corned beef. 12. Flank, stews or corned beef. 13. Round, steaks. 14. 2nd cut round, stews and soup. 15. Hind shank, stews and soup. 16. Tail, soup.Cuts of beef1. Neck, stews and soup. 2. Chuck ribs, cheaper roasts. 3. Prime ribs, very good roasts. 4. Loin, best steaks or roasts (sirloin, tenderloin, porterhouse). 5. Rump, roasts and steak. 6. Brisket, stews or corned beef. 7. Fore shank, soup. 8. Shoulder, stews or pot-roasts. 9. Short ribs, stews or cheap roasts. 10. Navel, corned beef. 11. Plate, stews or corned beef. 12. Flank, stews or corned beef. 13. Round, steaks. 14. 2nd cut round, stews and soup. 15. Hind shank, stews and soup. 16. Tail, soup.

Bony structureBony structure

(2) The connective tissue is made thick and tough by two causes.—(a) Age—in old animals the connective tissue has grown thick.(b) Exercise—in certain parts of the body, where muscles are much used, these muscles must be more firmly bound together, as in the neck and legs, etc.(3) Dry heat will harden connective tissue, making it more difficult to cut and chew; therefore tough cuts should not be cooked in dry heat.(4) Moist heat will soften and finally dissolve connective tissue, making it easy to cut and chew; therefore tough cuts should be cooked in moist heat.(5) Tough meat is more abundant in an animal's body, and is, therefore, cheaper than tender meat.(6) Tough meat has richer juices than tender meat and should be used for soup, broth, and beef-tea.

(2) The connective tissue is made thick and tough by two causes.—

(a) Age—in old animals the connective tissue has grown thick.(b) Exercise—in certain parts of the body, where muscles are much used, these muscles must be more firmly bound together, as in the neck and legs, etc.

(a) Age—in old animals the connective tissue has grown thick.

(b) Exercise—in certain parts of the body, where muscles are much used, these muscles must be more firmly bound together, as in the neck and legs, etc.

(3) Dry heat will harden connective tissue, making it more difficult to cut and chew; therefore tough cuts should not be cooked in dry heat.

(4) Moist heat will soften and finally dissolve connective tissue, making it easy to cut and chew; therefore tough cuts should be cooked in moist heat.

(5) Tough meat is more abundant in an animal's body, and is, therefore, cheaper than tender meat.

(6) Tough meat has richer juices than tender meat and should be used for soup, broth, and beef-tea.

11. Digestibility of meat:

(1) The less muscle juice is coagulated by heat, the more easily it is digested.(2) Because of their close texture, the liver, kidney, and heart of animals are more difficult to digest.(3) Mutton and lamb, because of their shorter fibres, are more easily digested than beef.(4) Veal is difficult to digest, owing to its stringy fibres.

(1) The less muscle juice is coagulated by heat, the more easily it is digested.

(2) Because of their close texture, the liver, kidney, and heart of animals are more difficult to digest.

(3) Mutton and lamb, because of their shorter fibres, are more easily digested than beef.

(4) Veal is difficult to digest, owing to its stringy fibres.

Cuts of vealCuts of veal

Cuts of lambCuts of lamb

(5) Pork has a large amount of fat intermingled with its fibres, and is, therefore, difficult to digest.(6) Chicken and turkey are easily digested, but goose and duck are indigestible, because of the fat through the muscle fibres.(7) Game is easy of digestion.

(5) Pork has a large amount of fat intermingled with its fibres, and is, therefore, difficult to digest.

(6) Chicken and turkey are easily digested, but goose and duck are indigestible, because of the fat through the muscle fibres.

(7) Game is easy of digestion.

The practical work, besides the experiments, in connection with the meat lessons, should consist of at least three preparations of this food: (1) the cooking of tender meat, (2) the cooking of tough meat, (3) the making of soup.

Cuts of porkCuts of pork

The object of each preparation should be made plain, so that the pupils may fully understand what they are trying to accomplish.

1. Object in cooking tender meat:

(1) To change the flavour and appearance.(2) To seal the tubes to keep in the juices.(3) To cook the meat without densely coagulating the protein of the muscle juice, so as to keep it digestible.

(1) To change the flavour and appearance.

(2) To seal the tubes to keep in the juices.

(3) To cook the meat without densely coagulating the protein of the muscle juice, so as to keep it digestible.

2. Object in cooking tough meat:

(1) To change the flavour and appearance.(2) To soften and partially dissolve the connective tissue, making it easy to cut.(3) To avoid making the muscle juice indigestible.

(1) To change the flavour and appearance.

(2) To soften and partially dissolve the connective tissue, making it easy to cut.

(3) To avoid making the muscle juice indigestible.

3. Object in making soup:

(1) To extract the connective tissue from the bone.(2) To extract the muscle juice from the tubes.

(1) To extract the connective tissue from the bone.

(2) To extract the muscle juice from the tubes.

1. Baking:

Place the meat in a very hot oven with pieces of the fat or some dripping in the pan. Baste every ten minutes. Keep the oven very hot for a small roast. For a large roast, check the fire after the first fifteen minutes. Bake fifteen minutes to each pound.

2. Broiling:

(1) Over the coals.—Put the meat between the hot greased wires of a broiler. Place over a very hot, clear fire. Turn the broiler every ten seconds. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in eight minutes.(2) Pan Broiling.—Heat a frying-pan smoking hot. Lay the meat in flat; turn constantly until seared, then frequently, as in broiling, but do not pierce the muscle part with a fork. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in ten minutes.

(1) Over the coals.—Put the meat between the hot greased wires of a broiler. Place over a very hot, clear fire. Turn the broiler every ten seconds. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in eight minutes.

(2) Pan Broiling.—Heat a frying-pan smoking hot. Lay the meat in flat; turn constantly until seared, then frequently, as in broiling, but do not pierce the muscle part with a fork. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in ten minutes.

3. Boiling:

Cover the meat with boiling water. Boil five minutes. Then simmer until done. Tender meat takes twenty minutes to the pound; tough meat takes from three to five hours.

4. Stewing:

Cut the meat in pieces of a suitable size. Cover with cold water. Bring gradually to the simmering point and simmer until tender, usually three or four hours. Keep the pot closely covered.

5. Beef juice:

Take one pound of steak from the top of the round. Wipe the steak, remove all fat, and cut the lean meat in small pieces. Place in canning jar, and cover; place on a rest in the kettle and surround with cold water. Allow the water to heat slowly, care being taken not to have it reach a higher temperature than 130 degrees. Let stand two hours; strain and press the meat to obtain all the juices. Salt to taste.

Note.—These rules may be dictated to the class, as all of the principles which they involve have been previously discussed.

Since fish is the flesh of sea animals, there will be little new to learn concerning it.

Main points of difference between this flesh and ordinary meat are:

1. Fish is less stimulating and nourishing than meat, as it contains more water and less protein than an equal quantity of lean meat.

2. Oysters, and the class called white-fish, are more easily digested than meat, hence they should be chosen for invalids or those having weak digestions.

Kinds of fish:

1. White-fish.—The fat is stored mostly in the liver, making the flesh easy to digest. Examples: cod, halibut, haddock, white-fish.

2. Oily fish.—The fat is distributed throughout the flesh, making it more difficult to digest. Examples: salmon, herring, mackerel.

3. Shell-fish.—Because of their close fibres, these are difficult to digest, with the exception of oysters. Examples: clams, scallops, and oysters.

4. Crustaceous.—The flesh is tough and hard to digest. Examples: lobsters, crabs.

Selection of fish:

Fresh fish may be recognized by the following:

1. The eyes should be full and bright.

2. The flesh should be firm and elastic.

3. The gills should be bright red.

4. There should be no unpleasant odour.

Cooking of fish:

Fish may be cooked in any way similar to meat. As the flesh of fish contains food substances which are very easily dissolved in water, boiling is not a good method of cooking to choose for this food. Steaming, baking, and frying are more suitable.

A lesson on gelatine naturally follows the lessons on meat and fish. The study of bone and the making of soup have explained the source of this substance, and only a few additional facts are necessary.

The gelatine practice dishes are sure to prove attractive to the class, and the common use of this food in sickness, and in salads and desserts, makes it important that its food value be understood.

1. Source of gelatine:

Gelatine is obtained from the bones, cartilage, and skin of animals. It is the connective tissue dissolved out of these parts.

The housekeeper may obtain it for herself or she may buy it already extracted; both are equally good.

2. Commercial forms:

(1) Sheet gelatine(2) Shredded gelatine(3) Granulated gelatine.

(1) Sheet gelatine

(2) Shredded gelatine

(3) Granulated gelatine.

3. Properties of gelatine:

(1) It softens in cold water, but will not dissolve.(2) It dissolves in hot water.(3) It jellies when cold, if the solution be sufficiently strong.(4) Good gelatine has little taste, colour, or odour, and no sediment when dissolved.

(1) It softens in cold water, but will not dissolve.

(2) It dissolves in hot water.

(3) It jellies when cold, if the solution be sufficiently strong.

(4) Good gelatine has little taste, colour, or odour, and no sediment when dissolved.

4. Steps in dissolving gelatine:

(1) Put a small amount of cold water or any cold liquid on gelatine, and let it stand until the liquid is absorbed.(2) Add a boiling liquid and stir thoroughly until dissolved.

(1) Put a small amount of cold water or any cold liquid on gelatine, and let it stand until the liquid is absorbed.

(2) Add a boiling liquid and stir thoroughly until dissolved.

5. Value in the diet:

(1) Gelatine is a nitrogenous substance, but cannot of itself build tissues, as most protein foods do. When eaten, it will save the tissues already making up the body, hence is called aprotein-sparer.(2) It is very easily digested, and for this reason it gives a pleasant variety to the diet of an invalid.(3) It makes an attractive dessert at the end of a substantial meal, without adding much nutriment.

(2) It is very easily digested, and for this reason it gives a pleasant variety to the diet of an invalid.

(3) It makes an attractive dessert at the end of a substantial meal, without adding much nutriment.

6. Ways of using gelatine:

(1) It may assist in making soup.(2) Any liquid may be used to dissolve this substance to make a plain jelly. Examples: coffee jelly, tomato jelly, wine jelly.(3) Plain jelly may be varied as follows:Allow the plain jelly mixture to cool until it is as thick as cream, and then beat in whipped egg-white, or fruit, or chopped vegetables, and set away until firm. Examples: snow pudding, orange charlotte, vegetable salad.(4) Strain off the juice from a can of fruit, heat it, and use it for dissolving the gelatine. When almost set, add the fruit, and set away to become firm.

(1) It may assist in making soup.

(2) Any liquid may be used to dissolve this substance to make a plain jelly. Examples: coffee jelly, tomato jelly, wine jelly.

(3) Plain jelly may be varied as follows:

Allow the plain jelly mixture to cool until it is as thick as cream, and then beat in whipped egg-white, or fruit, or chopped vegetables, and set away until firm. Examples: snow pudding, orange charlotte, vegetable salad.

(4) Strain off the juice from a can of fruit, heat it, and use it for dissolving the gelatine. When almost set, add the fruit, and set away to become firm.

A lesson on frozen dishes may be taken at any time, but it seems specially opportune after the gelatine lesson. It may be impossible to make these dishes in school, but the facts of the lesson may be discussed and recipes furnished, after which a Form IV pupil should find no difficulty in carrying out these recipes at home.

Elementary science should be correlated, to explain the use of salt in the freezing process.

1. They are cooling, refreshing, and nourishing when properly taken; they are not good as a final course at a meal, as cold mixtures reduce the temperature of the stomach and thus retard digestion.

2. They are appetizing in appearance and flavour.

3. They are economical as regards cost of ingredients, fuel, time, and energy.

1. Water ice.—Fruit juice diluted with water, sweetened and frozen; stirred about every five minutes while freezing.

2. Frappé.—Water ice frozen to the consistency of mush; in freezing, equal parts of ice and salt are used to make the mixture granular.

3. Sherbet.—Water ice to which is added a small quantity of dissolved gelatine or beaten egg-white; stirred constantly while freezing.

4. Ice cream.—Thin cream, sweetened, flavoured, and frozen; stirred constantly while freezing.

5. Plain ice cream.—Same as ice cream with custard added.

6. Mousse.—Thick cream, beaten until stiff, sweetened, flavoured, placed in a mould, packed in ice and salt (two parts ice to one part salt), and allowed to stand three hours. A small quantity of dissolved gelatine may be added to the mixture.

1. Freezing:

(1) Scald the can and dasher and cool just before using.(2) See that all parts of the freezer are properly adjusted.(3) Empty the mixture into the can; never fill the can more than three-quarters full, to allow for expansion when freezing.(4) Prepare ice by chipping finely or by crushing in a canvas bag by means of a mallet.(5) Allow three measures of ice to one of coarse rock salt and pack this mixture solidly around the can.(6) Turn the crank slowly and steadily until the mixture begins to freeze, then turn more rapidly until frozen.(7) Add more ice and salt as needed, but do not draw off the salt water except to keep it from getting inside the can.

(1) Scald the can and dasher and cool just before using.

(2) See that all parts of the freezer are properly adjusted.

(3) Empty the mixture into the can; never fill the can more than three-quarters full, to allow for expansion when freezing.

(4) Prepare ice by chipping finely or by crushing in a canvas bag by means of a mallet.

(5) Allow three measures of ice to one of coarse rock salt and pack this mixture solidly around the can.

(6) Turn the crank slowly and steadily until the mixture begins to freeze, then turn more rapidly until frozen.

(7) Add more ice and salt as needed, but do not draw off the salt water except to keep it from getting inside the can.

2. Packing:

(1) When the mixture is frozen, draw off the water, remove the dasher, and pack the contents of the can down solidly with a spoon.(2) Replace the cover, using a cork for the opening, then repack in ice and salt (four parts ice to one part salt).(3) Cover with newspapers, blanket, or carpet, and let it stand for at least one hour before serving.

(1) When the mixture is frozen, draw off the water, remove the dasher, and pack the contents of the can down solidly with a spoon.

(2) Replace the cover, using a cork for the opening, then repack in ice and salt (four parts ice to one part salt).

(3) Cover with newspapers, blanket, or carpet, and let it stand for at least one hour before serving.

2. Moulding:

(1) Wet the mould and pack the frozen mixture in solidly.(2) Place the cover on the mould and bind strips of greased cotton or waxed paper around all the crevices.(3) Imbed the mould in ice and salt (four parts ice to one part salt).(4) Wrap a cloth wrung from hot water around the mould for an instant, before removing the mixture.

(1) Wet the mould and pack the frozen mixture in solidly.

(2) Place the cover on the mould and bind strips of greased cotton or waxed paper around all the crevices.

(3) Imbed the mould in ice and salt (four parts ice to one part salt).

(4) Wrap a cloth wrung from hot water around the mould for an instant, before removing the mixture.

The food work of the previous Forms, from constant reference and use, should be so well known that it may be reviewed in one lesson, under the following heads:

1. Uses of food

2. Necessary substances in food

3. Composition of the common foods—milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, fruit, seeds

4. General sources of each food substance.

After the review, the class may be asked to prepare menus for one day's meals, keeping in mind the following:

1. Daily balance of food substances

2. Appetizing appearance and flavour of the food

3. Economy of time, labour, and money in providing the food.

The preparation of menus may be continued, even while other work is being studied, until the teacher feels satisfied with the ability of the class to prepare menus intelligently.

The planning of menus should, if time permit, be extended to actual practice in preparing and serving the meals called for by some of the menus. In this Form there should be a limit set to the number of people served and the cost of the food.

Since breakfast and luncheon were prepared in the Junior Form, a dinner should be taken in this. The entire responsibility of the meal should be given to the pupils, each being appointed to perform definite duties. The teacher may advise while the class is planning the work, but not assist while it is being carried out.

Each member of the class may be asked to prepare a menu to suit the special conditions which have been made as to number and cost. These may be planned at home and brought to the teacher for criticism. At the first lesson, three or four of the best may be written on the black-hoard for comparison and choice.

When the selection is made, members of the class should be chosen for the following duties: (1) marketing, (2) preparation of food, (3) laying the table, (4) serving, (5) representing members of the family to eat the meal.

Note.—To prevent any suspicion of favouritism, the duties may be written on slips of paper and the pupils allowed to draw these.

At the second lesson the meal will be prepared, served, and eaten. In schools lacking an equipment, the meal may be planned and selected in the same way as above, but the entire responsibility of carrying it out must rest on one pupil, as it will be necessary for each to prepare and serve it in her own home.

Thissubject is more suitable for older students than for those attending the public and separate schools, but, because of its importance and the fact that many girls never go beyond the Entrance class, it is deemed wise to present, to the pupils of Form IV, the main facts relating to the feeding of infants. Each teacher must however use her judgment in the choice of these facts for her class and in the method of presenting them. The instruction given may include the following ideas:

The natural food of an infant is its mother's milk, and too much stress cannot be placed on the necessity of nursing by the mother.

Even if the mother has but a small supply, the baby should not be weaned; the supply should be supplemented by modified milk. In the rare cases where a mother cannot nurse her baby, a physician should prescribe the food. In such a case the best substitute is cow's milk.

If cow's milk be used, it will have to be changed or "modified" to make it as far as possible like mother's milk. Cow's milk differs in the following respects: It has (1) less water and therefore more solids; (2) a larger proportion of protein and mineral compounds; (3) less sugar; (4) a different combination of fats.

Cow's milk cannot be made like mother's milk, but it is better food for a little baby if cream, milk sugar, and barley water, are added in certain proportions, varying according to the age of the child.

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