Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth, giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and swallow-tail butterfly.
The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded. They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.
Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market. Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.
During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to blackenand die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux mixture. This may be prepared as follows:
Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack, which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot, add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline. If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it. If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture—a teaspoonful to every two gallons. To prove the value of thistreatment have a trial plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be repeated.
Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent. solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water. Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be disinfected with this formalin solution.
In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used. Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also be used dry with flour or dust.
If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used, such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:
Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed thoroughly.
Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to plant-lice and scale insects:
Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling, it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.
The larvæ of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage, as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder, which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour—one ounce of insect powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar plants.
By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the following points:
1. These plants are always grown from seeds.
2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's growth.
3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.
Plants having these characteristics are calledannuals. The teacher explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few other annuals.
In a similar way, discuss a few common types ofbiennials, such as turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:
1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of their life.
2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots, leaves, or stems.
3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish the flowers and seeds.
A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish material for concrete study.
In a similar way discuss a few common types ofperennials, such as rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:
1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's growth.
2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and shrubs.
3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.
4. These plants live on from year to year.
Observations.—Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer, hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom throughout the season.
Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example, sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.
Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in plots, not until the soil is quite warm.
The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.
Observations.—During the first year food is stored in the root of the turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in the stem of the hollyhock.
Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparationfor winter is therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth the following spring.
Observations.—The highest forms of plant life are found in this class; namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.
The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion, and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip, scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.
Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn, Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.
A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are recommended: annuals—sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials—cabbage, parsnip, and carrot; perennials—dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.
It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens brought into the room by the pupils.
Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform slender structure, and the fact that itclimbs. Find out just how it climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of the midribs of the leaves.
Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling themcompound.
Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form. What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the flower enable it to attract attention?
The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For example:
Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is thecalyx.
The beautiful, attractive part is thecorolla.
The parts that produce the pollen are calledstamens.
The case that holds the seeds is thepistil.
Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute pistil to the pod.
Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.
Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds and preserve them for spring planting.
Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils will discover such facts as those given below.
Notice the method of growth—the stem no stronger than that of the sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent out here and there where thestem touches the ground. This gives extra nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction, but are very large—entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem. Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit. Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.
Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the pumpkin.
This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines, and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong, stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement. The same strengtheningfibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the feeding capacity.
Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch, or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries this pollen.
Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?
Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show how each kind is fitted for its particular work.
Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:
1. Whether the corn grows faster:
(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;
(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;
(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.
2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in adjoining plots. Account for the result.
Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also upon the ear.
Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields", fromHiawatha.
History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or for boiling to make hominy by September.
The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be continued in this Form.
Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate the number of seeds produced by each plant.
By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of improper scattering of seeds, namely:
1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become weak.
2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which causes the plants to be small and worthless.
Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.
The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its seeds.
Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these plants to the class for the next lesson.
Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for observing and classifying as follows:
1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples—burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.
2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive colours, tastes, etc. Examples—apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.
3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples—dandelion, thistle, milkweed, maple, pine, elm.
4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods. Examples—violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.
5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the wind. Examples—Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.
6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are especially adapted for dispersal by water.
To the teacher.—Require the pupils to observe the special structure that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.
During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have been identified by the pupils should be collected.
Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.
Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for discussion.
Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the number of weed seeds found in each.
The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious weeds are introduced.
Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their household goods.
Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills, fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infestedwith noxious weeds to do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that was produced on dirty farms.
Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk, the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.
Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for the difference.
Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?
Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?
Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?
Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds become overgrown or cause decay.
Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.
To the teacher.—The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our native trees for ornament and shade. Itgrows fairly rapidly and becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.
As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by hickory.
The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of the teacher.
Observations.—Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.
Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.
Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.
Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.
Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.
Distribute leaves of theredmaple and ask the pupils to note the general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape, texture, and teeth on the margin.
Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the sugar maple.
Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See Collections, page 33, in General Method.)
To the teacher.—The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad, and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple, with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common species.
A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits (keys) of the maples.
The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to those outlined for the study of the maple.
With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple",The Ontario Readers, Third Book, page 179;
With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in colour work.
In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed persistent.
To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as the following:
1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.
2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.
3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal; the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.
4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied. (See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)
5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been studied.
The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.
Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.
The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to the following scheme:
Colour:Size:(in fractions of an inch)Shape:Details:Occurrence:
Colour:Size:(in fractions of an inch)Shape:Details:Occurrence:
The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear in the following form:
Colour:Black and greenish-white in stripes,Size:One sixteenth of an inch,Shape:Club-shaped,Details: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,Occurrence:A common impurity in grass seed.
Colour:Black and greenish-white in stripes,Size:One sixteenth of an inch,Shape:Club-shaped,Details: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,Occurrence:A common impurity in grass seed.
(Consult the Manual onSuggestions for Teachers of Science: Zoology, First year.)
(Consult the Manual onSuggestions for Teachers of Science: Zoology, First year.)
The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September, together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study serves as a basis for a knowledge of the classinsecta.
Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying, leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.
Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or incite to more careful observation.
Observations.—The three divisions of the body—head, thorax, abdomen; the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears, ovipositors of the female.
The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult and are in the stage of development called thenymphphase. Note the hairy body and the absence of wings.
To the teacher.—The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and examined.
In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.
The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvæ of the beetles feed upon and destroy the eggs.
The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.
The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes" because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract attention.
Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the grasshopper.
In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak, turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or alder.
Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these insects feed.
Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in support of your answer.
Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?
Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.
Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found where there are aphides. Lady-birds(also called lady-bugs), are small, spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black, or yellow and black, or black and white.
They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).
Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes called ant-cows.
Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.
The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey. It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the leaves of tomato vines.
Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid growth. Keep the larvæ in a box in the school-room and feed them on tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of remaining rigid for hours—hence the name sphinx moth.
The larvæ burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides, hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.
Observations.—The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the adult in May or early June.
What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?
The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful, clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvæ whose chrysalis and adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.
Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer. (As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of structure.)
Observations.—Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?
Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons, and expression of fear.
Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?
Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?
Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn, potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.
Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in keeping crows off the grain fields?
Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.
Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.
Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.
Note.—Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with coal-tar before it is planted.
In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox, flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for study in many localities.
The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises, as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding moat, are topics of interest.
With literature: By reading animal stories, such as,The Kindred of the Wildand "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; andWild Animals I Have Known, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.
With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have been observed.
The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:
1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants.
2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water every day.
3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them from dust.
4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash.
5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although most of the ferns grow without it.
6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for potting.
7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local exhibition, adds to the interest.
8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their development.
The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little care even children may propagate plants in this way.
Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should be used.
Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand—not potting soil. A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in length, always cutting it at orjust below a node, or joint, and leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm atmosphere hasten their development.
Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water. Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a fairly warm room in moderate light.
When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the old plants and then throw the latter away.
In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of these.
Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter.
Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows and storms of winter by:
1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree.
2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will adhere.
3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old positions.
4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to resist frost and rain.
Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones.
Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves.
Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour.
Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly.
The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to make a census of the evergreens ofthe locality, recording the class of evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or for commercial purposes.
To the teacher.—The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following points of difference in their leaves:
The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk. Look for this tiny stalk.
The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the hemlock leaf is much the shorter.
The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper surface.
Note that the sprucetypeis studied; no attempt is made at this stage to differentiate the several species of spruce.
During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried afterwards. They should be uniform in length—not more than six inches—and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be obtained at wood-working factories.
Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well as with animal life.
Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature selections.
For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171.
Introduction.—Discuss the preparations that people make for winter, such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and homes.
Method.—The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell what they have learned through theirown observation of animals. The knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the teacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further observations. Thus:
Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter?
What do they feed upon during the winter?
What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn?
What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their bodies?
Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they ever come out in mid-winter.
To the teacher.—The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. To hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animals have much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beat and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently a very little nourishment suffices to sustain life.
(Two lessons of twenty minutes)