1 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths 3/16 in. to 1/4 in. outside diameter.6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. to 8 oz.$ .501 Funnel, 3 in. diameter.101 Beaker, 8 oz..101 Evaporating dish.103 ft. pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. inside.251/2 sq. foot thin sheet rubber.201 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 5/8 in..201/2 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 7/8 in..10Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes.102 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole1 " " " 4, " "1 " " " 7, two holes.302 watch glasses.10Ball and ring1.002 Dry cells.602 Bar magnets.501 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. to 0 deg. F..401 Spirit-lamp.201 Retort, 4 oz. stoppered.15Wax candles.10Retort stand of iron, two rings.851 Thistle tube.10Common corks, assorted.10Filter paper 5 in. diameter.05Test-tube holder.10Test-tube rack.10Test-tube cleaner.101 piece glass tubing 30 in. long, 1/4 in. inside, for barometer.201 clamp for closing rubber tube.10Covered copper wire.10Small compass.50Glass model of common pump1.00Globe for weighing air2.50Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. by 2 in..25Glass prism 60.50Tuning fork 4-1/2 in..50Electric bell.50Motor (Ajax)1.50Balance10.00Air-pump15.00Iron wire gauze.05Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum.252 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c.20Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter.202 dairy thermometers at 15c.30
Sulphuric acid, 1 lb..10Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz..10Nitric acid, 4 oz..10Washing soda.05Sugar.05Salt.05Blue vitriol.10Alum.05Saltpetre.05Sulphur.05Potass. permanganate.05Lime.05Plaster-paris.05Potass. bichromate.10Methylated spirits, 1 pt..10Alcohol, 95%.10Iodine crystals.10Mercury, 1 lb.1.00Pot. chlorate.15Manganese dioxide.10Phosphorus.10Sweet oil, 2 oz..10Benzine, 2 oz..10
The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane, brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files—round, flat, and triangular.
Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding list, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the performance of a large number of the experiments:
1/2 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths, 3/16 in. and 1/4 in. outside$ .202 Florence flasks, 4 oz..151 Funnel.102 ft. pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. inside.151/2 doz. test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. long.202 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole.101 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole.10Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's).10Common corks, assorted.101 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. to 212 deg. F..401 spirit-lamp, 4 oz..101 thistle tube.10Covered wire, copper.10
Iodine crystals.10Sulphuric acid, 1 lb..10Methylated spirits 1 pt..20Alcohol, 95%.10Mercury, 1/2 lb..50Pot. chlorate.15Manganese dioxide.10
The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no cost from household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt, ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass. bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheet metals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoe magnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon, bicycle pump, baking-powder.
For home-made apparatus, consultLaboratory Exercises in Physicsby Newman, Ginn & Co., 50c., and Manual onManual Training.
Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of simple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils can contrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuable will be the course in Physical Science.
Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass, bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4 in. square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust two pieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. or 6 in. long. The outer edges of the carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut a slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. by 7 in. previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in the jar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another.
One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraph sounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; two cells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wire red-hot.
1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber) with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. by 1/8 in. into each hole so that 1/2 in. projects above and below. Insert a tight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making the stopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pour into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and add a few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to the lower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums. These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and hydrogen.
2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. by 1/8 in. to each wire from the battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler. The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gases cannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric light carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak.
When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk pan or similarly shaped vessel.
Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string for the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through; then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick.
A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To the open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4 in. long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. long. Fill the tube thus formed with mercury to within 3 in. from the top. Holding the short glass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8 in. bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube 1/4 in. bore.)
For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against the wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslin hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three inches below the bulb on a little shelf.
To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled.
Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber.
Red ink makes good colouring matter.
Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre, and drying it.
Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing.
To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about half an inch wide and wrap this around the tube.
To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from the flame, and bend.
To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file.
To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may be necessary.
In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned, plunge the bottle vertically into cold water.
Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks.
The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, about five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils have made on problems previously assigned.
On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish, weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-hand weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out.
Materials.—A flower for each pupilA plant set into a flower-potA leaf for each pupilA pile of leaves containing a few pansy leaves and several of other kinds.
Introduction.—A conversation with the pupils about their favourite flowers.
Observations.—The pansy flowers are now distributed and the general form of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of an animal will be discovered. The namecorollais given, but no other botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson.
The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, and the number of leaflets in it are nextdiscoveredand described by thepupils. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and the little seeds.
The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem is developed by a method similar to the following:
What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant? Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering?
How can you keep them from withering?
Hence, what must the flower get from the stem?
Where does the stem get the moisture?
Hence, what is one use of the root?
A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot. What is another use that you have discovered for the root?
The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and for holding the plant in place.
Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil.
The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy leaves from the pile of leaves.
To the teacher.—The pupils must be active participants in the lesson. They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining first-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in their own way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with its face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and the child's interest in theuseof things is utilized in the study of the relations of root, stem, and flower.
This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the following correlations:
1. With art:
Represent the flower in colours.
2. With reading and literature:
The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the following stanza:
The pansy wakes in early springTo make our world more bright;All summer long its happy faceFills children with delight,
The pansy wakes in early springTo make our world more bright;All summer long its happy faceFills children with delight,
Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following plants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium, goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description of the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plant itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life.
The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation work, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise of this kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be aroused.
The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can see. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows.
The pupils are next instructed to:
1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare to go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night.
2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf to school next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped or placed.
To the teacher.—Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the green leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug covering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a lion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the Frenchdent de lion, which is pronounced very much likethe word dandelion. The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the rain toward the root should be noted.
1. Why is the dandelion easy to find?
2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass?
3. What insect friends visit the dandelion?
4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and find whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers.
To the teacher.—The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts attention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, so that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the sunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and these may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If their bodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will be found sticking to them.
1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturb them, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become.
2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what they are.
3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it?
To the teacher.—In this exercise the pupils will learn that the large white balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed of little brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away.
When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge of the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas:
Oh dandelion! yellow as gold,What do you do all day?I just wait here in the tall green grassTill the children come to play.And what do you do when your hair is whiteAnd the children come to play?They take me up in their dimpled handsAnd blow my hair away.
Oh dandelion! yellow as gold,What do you do all day?I just wait here in the tall green grassTill the children come to play.
And what do you do when your hair is whiteAnd the children come to play?They take me up in their dimpled handsAnd blow my hair away.
In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable for observation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea, snap-dragon, nasturtium.
Observations.—The size of the plant at the time of flowering; its leaves—size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; colours found in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in the garden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do the flowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with the leaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, the insect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, when the first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to come out. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather as well as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with the climbing nasturtium. Find the seeds.
The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annuals are ripening their seeds at this time of year.
Assign to the pupils the following exercise:
Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or home gardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the name of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant. Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed.
The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations and problems are dealt with of which the following are representative:
How does each seed case open?
What are the seeds for?
How many seeds are in each case?
Why should a plant have so many seeds?
How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds?
Are any two seeds alike in shape?
Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground?
What makes them hard to find?
Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter?
Of what use is the hard shell of the seed?
Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with the Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of interest to children.
Materials.—A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head.
Introduction.—A short conversation about the effects of the crowding of plants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need for the scattering of seeds.
Observations.—Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so that they may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged, and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together.
Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe how the silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to each pupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to carry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin and light, and the silky plumes very light.
Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out of school, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interesting experiment for a windy day.
The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds are found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tiny parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil is permitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means of flight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds is observed and also the tiny anchor points atthe lower end of the seed for clutching the ground when the seed alights.
Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree seeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce.
1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelion seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air.
2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively:
Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green,Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen,Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white,And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight.
Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green,Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen,Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white,And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight.
The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as observation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study should follow the general lessons on tree study.
The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for use.
Materials.—A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for each pupil.
A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it.
Observations.—The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be found on the twig.
Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer in each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize the feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few brief questions will guide the answerer in making his description more definite, but the description should be the result of the pupil's observation and expressed in his own words.
The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible, immediately after it has been described.
The following features will be discovered and the problems suggested will be solved:
The brown or greenish-brown bark.
The buds.
One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig.
Some buds are along the side of the twig.
What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others?
There is a leaf scar under each bud.
Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk?
The bands of rings, one or more on each twig.
The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band.
The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson.
The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following:
Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape, colour, and marks.
Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what use to the tree is the healing of the scar?
We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands of rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has the oldest twig?
Do all twigs grow at the same rate?
Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth?
To the teacher.—The bud at the end of the twig or its branches is called the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The buds along the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smaller than the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the twig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud close to the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leaf scars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves of former years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like a horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe nails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklike substance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection against the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents the loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as the point of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands of rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years. This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening.
The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented by the examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac.
Materials.—Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. An opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will develop rapidly.)
Lesson.—Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds.
Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and scalelike covering.
Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour of the bud?
They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the buds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty as to the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring.
To the teacher.—The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the scales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to be retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from the cold.
Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson.
The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for busy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assigned exercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, paper cutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigs and buds.
For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of the pupils by requiring sentences containing the words—scales, twigs, buds, protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc.
Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be obtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arouse the interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but care must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the descriptions too technical for the primary classes.
An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following plants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), a nasturtium, a geranium.
Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of these plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of the branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leaves overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are the leaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straight and flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy?
Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right form to get these things?
To the teacher.—The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably so placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are of such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to theairandsunshineandrain. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins are stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs of an umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of plants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar. They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon leaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with pupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys and girls need air for breathing may be told them.
Introduction.—Tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves grow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc.
Are leaves all of the same shape?
To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves.
Observations.—Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac, and obtain from the pupils the nameheart-shape. Use the following types:
Maple leaf as star-shape,Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape,Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape,Ash or rowan, as feather-shape.
Maple leaf as star-shape,Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape,Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape,Ash or rowan, as feather-shape.
Drill.—Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest?
If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables that grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they have watched their development throughout. For them such continuous observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a deepening of interest and appreciation.
What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the last to appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants?
What weeds grow in the plot?
Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants?
What kind of root has each weed?
Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces?
Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields?
What garden plants produce flowers?
How are the seeds protected?
Compare the seeds with those that you planted.
Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next year's seeding.
What plants grow tallest?
What plants are most suitable for borders?
What plants are valuable for their flowers?
What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edible leaves, for their edible seeds?
How are the edible parts stored for winter use?
Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind that are not crowded.
Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot.
The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced with pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, the potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as most school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-white narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the fifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas.
Materials.—The bulbs to be planted.
As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required.
Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equal proportions. Stones for drainage.
Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wide and sharpened at one end, will answer).
Pictures of the plants in bloom.
Observations.—The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, and they are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind of bulb.
A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and the pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of the plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of the bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is discussed.
The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is observed, and its meaning inferred.
The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb.
The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasons for the following operations are developed:
What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, or stone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot?
Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil?
Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs?
Why must the soil be well wetted?
Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more?
To the teacher.—The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage. The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering.The potted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are well rooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, and it will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers, and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the more free passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usually suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not be warm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should be covered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. The soil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if brought out of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the end of another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must be taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become green. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the flowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbs may be kept and planted again the following year.
The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their various pets.
Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to take care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is based upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit.
Where do wild rabbits live?
What sort of home does a rabbit have?
In what ways does this home protect the rabbit?
Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit?
What does the rabbit eat?
Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health?
Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will the rabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runs about?
Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed?
Observations.—The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the school-room, where, during recreation periods, thepupils make observations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as:
Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements—hopping, squatting, listening, scratching, and gnawing.
These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or verified.
To the teacher.—Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the edges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the bushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and from wind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bed for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and in which it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbit consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnaws the bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore, feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leaves of plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawing helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We must be careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it any cabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish of water must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink.
Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils. Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, and instincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions such as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is the animal fitted for this habit of life, etc.?
Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move?
Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fitted for making long hops?
Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet? Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing.
Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently?
Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make very little noise.
How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather?
Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds?
How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds?
Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing.
To the teacher.—The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops.
When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest Thompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", inWild Animals I Have Known, contains an interesting account of how Molly rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animal warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain.
Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean, dry home.
The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order and general method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, white mouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot.
In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils. Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessons grow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may be conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study of the pigeon.
With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug".
With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes, as squatting, listening, hopping.
With modelling in clay or plasticine.
With paper cutting.
With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit.
They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the rabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid.
The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbit has a soft bed in its hutch.
The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the domestic cat. The teacher can rely upon thepupil's knowledge of the cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson:
The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day.
The cat can hear faint noises quite readily.
The cat can walk noiselessly.
The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces upon it, and seizes it with its claws.
The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently.
The cat likes to sleep in a warm place.
The cat can fight viciously with her claws.
The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed with her paws.
The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake.
Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements, instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson.
Observations.—Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a noiseless tread.
Find the claws.
How are the claws fitted for seizing prey?
How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against objects when the cat is walking?
A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe: its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body, including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements, as walking, flying, tumbling.
The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is full-fledged.
Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties—pouters, fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton'sArnex.
Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these two kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for their difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the body.
Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing comes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies.
Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees.
Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the bill adapted for picking up grains and seeds?
Children are most interested in things which they own and care for themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing it to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the same time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of having beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none to be had out-of-doors.
Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for observing plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots have been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to know what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water, light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a very few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them.
This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree.
Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the broad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapes differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangement of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight out fromthe main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms.
Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point. Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots the pine has.
Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and the bark thinner the nearer to the top we go.
Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into the sunlight.
The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered. Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupil may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a class-room lesson.
Materials.—Small branches—one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of pine board.
Introduction.—Review the general features of the pine that were observed in the field lesson.
Observations.—The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface.
Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms?
Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles.
Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch?
Are there any buds on the branches?
If so, where are the buds?
How are the buds protected from rain?
The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape.
The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds.
Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds.
The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its hardness is tested.
Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood.
The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree:
The height of the tree.
The part of the height that is composed of tree tops.
The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top.
The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top.
Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm.
The diameter of the trunk.
The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches.
The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella.
The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows.
The birds that make their nests in the elm.
In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the leaves.
A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above, is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the kind of soil on which they grow.
The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees upon which to base lessons for Form I.
Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation work, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely.
Introduction.—By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper treatment.
Lesson.—The matter and method are suggested by the following:
What are the different things for which horses are useful?
What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads?
Why are they most useful?
What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they the most useful?
What kinds are the most useful for driving?
Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all these things?
What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and brisk?
What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and fresh air?
Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth?
When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be protected if hitched out-of-doors?
Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put on until he has been in the stable for a little while?
Correlate with reading fromBlack Beauty.
Preparation.—I want you to find out some more things about the horse, but you will understand these things better if you remember that long ago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairies to-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame horses.