Observations concerning the Inflexions of the Rays of Light, and the Colours made thereby.
Grimaldo has inform'd us, that if a beam of the Sun's Light be let into a dark Room through a very small hole, the Shadows of things in this Light will be larger than they ought to be if the Rays went on by the Bodies in straight Lines, and that these Shadows have three parallel Fringes, Bands or Ranks of colour'd Light adjacent to them. But if the Hole be enlarged the Fringes grow broad and run into one another, so that they cannot be distinguish'd. These broad Shadows and Fringes have been reckon'd by some to proceed from the ordinary refraction of the Air, but without due examination of the Matter. For the circumstances of the Phænomenon, so far as I have observed them, are as follows.
Obs.1. I made in a piece of Lead a small Hole with a Pin, whose breadth was the 42d part of an Inch. For 21 of those Pins laid together took up the breadth of half an Inch. Through this Hole I let into my darken'd Chamber a beam of the Sun's Light, and found that the Shadows of Hairs, Thred, Pins, Straws, and such like slender Substances placed in this beam of Light, were considerably broader than they ought to be, if the Rays of Light passed on by these Bodies in right Lines. And particularly a Hair of a Man's Head, whose breadth was but the 280th part of an Inch, being held in this Light, at the distance of about twelve Feet from the Hole, did cast a Shadow which at the distance of four Inches from the Hair was the sixtieth part of an Inch broad, that is, above four times broader than the Hair, and at the distance of two Feet from the Hair was about the eight and twentieth part of an Inch broad, that is, ten times broader than the Hair, and at the distance of ten Feet was the eighth part of an Inch broad, that is 35 times broader.
Nor is it material whether the Hair be encompassed with Air, or with any other pellucid Substance. For I wetted a polish'd Plate of Glass, and laid the Hair in the Water upon the Glass, and then laying another polish'd Plate of Glass upon it, so that the Water might fill up the space between the Glasses, I held them in the aforesaid beam of Light, so that the Light might pass through them perpendicularly, and the Shadow of the Hair was at the same distances as big as before. The Shadows ofScratches made in polish'd Plates of Glass were also much broader than they ought to be, and the Veins in polish'd Plates of Glass did also cast the like broad Shadows. And therefore the great breadth of these Shadows proceeds from some other cause than the Refraction of the Air.
Let the Circle X [inFig.1.] represent the middle of the Hair; ADG, BEH, CFI, three Rays passing by one side of the Hair at several distances; KNQ, LOR, MPS, three other Rays passing by the other side of the Hair at the like distances; D, E, F, and N, O, P, the places where the Rays are bent in their passage by the Hair; G, H, I, and Q, R, S, the places where the Rays fall on a Paper GQ; IS the breadth of the Shadow of the Hair cast on the Paper, and TI, VS, two Rays passing to the Points I and S without bending when the Hair is taken away. And it's manifest that all the Light between these two Rays TI and VS is bent in passing by the Hair, and turned aside from the Shadow IS, because if any part of this Light were not bent it would fall on the Paper within the Shadow, and there illuminate the Paper, contrary to experience. And because when the Paper is at a great distance from the Hair, the Shadow is broad, and therefore the Rays TI and VS are at a great distance from one another, it follows that the Hair acts upon the Rays of Light at a good distance in their passing by it. But the Action is strongest on the Rays which pass by at least distances, and grows weaker and weaker accordingly as the Rays pass by at distances greater and greater, as is representedin the Scheme: For thence it comes to pass, that the Shadow of the Hair is much broader in proportion to the distance of the Paper from the Hair, when the Paper is nearer the Hair, than when it is at a great distance from it.
Obs.2. The Shadows of all Bodies (Metals, Stones, Glass, Wood, Horn, Ice, &c.) in this Light were border'd with three Parallel Fringes or Bands of colour'd Light, whereof that which was contiguous to the Shadow was broadest and most luminous, and that which was remotest from it was narrowest, and so faint, as not easily to be visible. It was difficult to distinguish the Colours, unless when the Light fell very obliquely upon a smooth Paper, or some other smooth white Body, so as to make them appear much broader than they would otherwise do. And then the Colours were plainly visible in this Order: The first or innermost Fringe was violet and deep blue next the Shadow, and then light blue, green, and yellow in the middle, and red without. The second Fringe was almost contiguous to the first, and the third to the second, and both were blue within, and yellow and red without, but their Colours were very faint, especially those of the third. The Colours therefore proceeded in this order from the Shadow; violet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red; blue, yellow, red; pale blue, pale yellow and red. The Shadows made by Scratches and Bubbles in polish'd Plates of Glass were border'd with the like Fringes of colour'd Light. And if Plates of Looking-glass sloop'd off near the edges with a Diamond-cut, be held in the same beam of Light, the Light which passes through the parallel Planes of the Glass will be border'd with the like Fringes of Colours where those Planes meet with the Diamond-cut, and by this means there will sometimes appear four or five Fringes of Colours. Let AB, CD [inFig.2.] represent the parallel Planes of a Looking-glass, and BD the Plane of the Diamond-cut, making at B a very obtuse Angle with the Plane AB. And let all the Light between the Rays ENI and FBM pass directly through the parallel Planes of the Glass, and fall upon the Paper between I and M, and all the Light between the Rays GO and HD be refracted by the oblique Plane of the Diamond-cut BD, and fall upon the Paper between K and L; and the Light which passes directly through the parallel Planes of the Glass, and falls upon the Paper between I and M, will be border'd with three or more Fringes at M.
Fig. 1.Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.Fig. 2.
So by looking on the Sun through a Feather or black Ribband held close to the Eye, several Rain-bows will appear; the Shadows which the Fibres or Threds cast on theTunica Retina, being border'd with the like Fringes of Colours.
Obs.3. When the Hair was twelve Feet distant from this Hole, and its Shadow fell obliquely upon a flat white Scale of Inches and Parts of an Inch placed half a Foot beyond it, and also when the Shadow fell perpendicularly upon the same Scale placed nine Feet beyond it; I measured the breadth of the Shadow and Fringes as accurately as I could, and found them in Parts of an Inch as follows.
At the Distance ofhalf a FootNine FeetThe breadth of the Shadow1/541/9The breadth between the Middles of the brightest Light of the innermost Fringes on either side the Shadow1/38 or 1/397/50The breadth between the Middles of the brightest Light of the middlemost Fringes on either side the Shadow1/23-1/24/17The breadth between the Middles of the brightest Light of the outmost Fringes on either side the Shadow1/18 or 1/18-1/23/10The distance between the Middles of the brightest Light of the first and second Fringes1/1201/21The distance between the Middles of the brightest Light of the second and third Fringes1/1701/31The breadth of the luminous Part (green, white, yellow, and red) of the first Fringe1/1701/32The breadth of the darker Space between the first and second Fringes1/2401/45The breadth of the luminous Part of the second Fringe1/2901/55The breadth of the darker Space between the second and third Fringes1/3401/63
These Measures I took by letting the Shadow of the Hair, at half a Foot distance, fall so obliquely on the Scale, as to appear twelve times broader than when it fell perpendicularly on it at the same distance, and setting down in this Table the twelfth part of the Measures I then took.
Obs.4. When the Shadow and Fringes were cast obliquely upon a smooth white Body, and that Body was removed farther and farther from the Hair, the first Fringe began to appear and look brighter than the rest of the Light at the distance of less than a quarter of an Inch from the Hair, and the dark Line or Shadow between that and the second Fringe began to appear at a less distance from the Hair than that of the third part of an Inch. The second Fringe began to appear at a distance from the Hair of less than half an Inch, and the Shadow between that and the third Fringe at a distance less than an inch, and the third Fringe at a distance less than three Inches. At greater distances they became much more sensible, but kept very nearly the same proportion of their breadths and intervals which they had at their first appearing. For the distance between the middle of the first, and middle of the second Fringe, was to the distance between the middle of the second and middle of the third Fringe, as three to two, or ten to seven. And the last of these two distances was equal to the breadth of the bright Light or luminous part of the first Fringe. And this breadth was to the breadth of the bright Light of the second Fringe as seven to four, and to the dark Interval of the firstand second Fringe as three to two, and to the like dark Interval between the second and third as two to one. For the breadths of the Fringes seem'd to be in the progression of the Numbers 1, √(1/3), √(1/5), and their Intervals to be in the same progression with them; that is, the Fringes and their Intervals together to be in the continual progression of the Numbers 1, √(1/2), √(1/3), √(1/4), √(1/5), or thereabouts. And these Proportions held the same very nearly at all distances from the Hair; the dark Intervals of the Fringes being as broad in proportion to the breadth of the Fringes at their first appearance as afterwards at great distances from the Hair, though not so dark and distinct.
Obs.5. The Sun shining into my darken'd Chamber through a hole a quarter of an Inch broad, I placed at the distance of two or three Feet from the Hole a Sheet of Pasteboard, which was black'd all over on both sides, and in the middle of it had a hole about three quarters of an Inch square for the Light to pass through. And behind the hole I fasten'd to the Pasteboard with Pitch the blade of a sharp Knife, to intercept some part of the Light which passed through the hole. The Planes of the Pasteboard and blade of the Knife were parallel to one another, and perpendicular to the Rays. And when they were so placed that none of the Sun's Light fell on the Pasteboard, but all of it passed through the hole to the Knife, and there part of it fell upon the blade of the Knife, and part of it passed by its edge; I let this part of the Light which passedby, fall on a white Paper two or three Feet beyond the Knife, and there saw two streams of faint Light shoot out both ways from the beam of Light into the shadow, like the Tails of Comets. But because the Sun's direct Light by its brightness upon the Paper obscured these faint streams, so that I could scarce see them, I made a little hole in the midst of the Paper for that Light to pass through and fall on a black Cloth behind it; and then I saw the two streams plainly. They were like one another, and pretty nearly equal in length, and breadth, and quantity of Light. Their Light at that end next the Sun's direct Light was pretty strong for the space of about a quarter of an Inch, or half an Inch, and in all its progress from that direct Light decreased gradually till it became insensible. The whole length of either of these streams measured upon the paper at the distance of three Feet from the Knife was about six or eight Inches; so that it subtended an Angle at the edge of the Knife of about 10 or 12, or at most 14 Degrees. Yet sometimes I thought I saw it shoot three or four Degrees farther, but with a Light so very faint that I could scarce perceive it, and suspected it might (in some measure at least) arise from some other cause than the two streams did. For placing my Eye in that Light beyond the end of that stream which was behind the Knife, and looking towards the Knife, I could see a line of Light upon its edge, and that not only when my Eye was in the line of the Streams, but also when it was without that line either towards the point of the Knife, ortowards the handle. This line of Light appear'd contiguous to the edge of the Knife, and was narrower than the Light of the innermost Fringe, and narrowest when my Eye was farthest from the direct Light, and therefore seem'd to pass between the Light of that Fringe and the edge of the Knife, and that which passed nearest the edge to be most bent, though not all of it.
Obs.6. I placed another Knife by this, so that their edges might be parallel, and look towards one another, and that the beam of Light might fall upon both the Knives, and some part of it pass between their edges. And when the distance of their edges was about the 400th part of an Inch, the stream parted in the middle, and left a Shadow between the two parts. This Shadow was so black and dark that all the Light which passed between the Knives seem'd to be bent, and turn'd aside to the one hand or to the other. And as the Knives still approach'd one another the Shadow grew broader, and the streams shorter at their inward ends which were next the Shadow, until upon the contact of the Knives the whole Light vanish'd, leaving its place to the Shadow.
And hence I gather that the Light which is least bent, and goes to the inward ends of the streams, passes by the edges of the Knives at the greatest distance, and this distance when the Shadow begins to appear between the streams, is about the 800th part of an Inch. And the Light which passes by the edges of the Knives at distances still less and less, is more and more bent, and goes to those parts of thestreams which are farther and farther from the direct Light; because when the Knives approach one another till they touch, those parts of the streams vanish last which are farthest from the direct Light.
Obs.7. In the fifth Observation the Fringes did not appear, but by reason of the breadth of the hole in the Window became so broad as to run into one another, and by joining, to make one continued Light in the beginning of the streams. But in the sixth, as the Knives approached one another, a little before the Shadow appeared between the two streams, the Fringes began to appear on the inner ends of the Streams on either side of the direct Light; three on one side made by the edge of one Knife, and three on the other side made by the edge of the other Knife. They were distinctest when the Knives were placed at the greatest distance from the hole in the Window, and still became more distinct by making the hole less, insomuch that I could sometimes see a faint lineament of a fourth Fringe beyond the three above mention'd. And as the Knives continually approach'd one another, the Fringes grew distincter and larger, until they vanish'd. The outmost Fringe vanish'd first, and the middlemost next, and the innermost last. And after they were all vanish'd, and the line of Light which was in the middle between them was grown very broad, enlarging it self on both sides into the streams of Light described in the fifth Observation, the above-mention'd Shadow began to appear in the middle of this line, and divide it along the middle into two lines of Light, and increaseduntil the whole Light vanish'd. This enlargement of the Fringes was so great that the Rays which go to the innermost Fringe seem'd to be bent above twenty times more when this Fringe was ready to vanish, than when one of the Knives was taken away.
And from this and the former Observation compared, I gather, that the Light of the first Fringe passed by the edge of the Knife at a distance greater than the 800th part of an Inch, and the Light of the second Fringe passed by the edge of the Knife at a greater distance than the Light of the first Fringe did, and that of the third at a greater distance than that of the second, and that of the streams of Light described in the fifth and sixth Observations passed by the edges of the Knives at less distances than that of any of the Fringes.
Obs.8. I caused the edges of two Knives to be ground truly strait, and pricking their points into a Board so that their edges might look towards one another, and meeting near their points contain a rectilinear Angle, I fasten'd their Handles together with Pitch to make this Angle invariable. The distance of the edges of the Knives from one another at the distance of four Inches from the angular Point, where the edges of the Knives met, was the eighth part of an Inch; and therefore the Angle contain'd by the edges was about one Degree 54: The Knives thus fix'd together I placed in a beam of the Sun's Light, let into my darken'd Chamber through a Hole the 42d Part of an Inch wide, at the distance of 10 or 15 Feet from the Hole, and let the Light whichpassed between their edges fall very obliquely upon a smooth white Ruler at the distance of half an Inch, or an Inch from the Knives, and there saw the Fringes by the two edges of the Knives run along the edges of the Shadows of the Knives in Lines parallel to those edges without growing sensibly broader, till they met in Angles equal to the Angle contained by the edges of the Knives, and where they met and joined they ended without crossing one another. But if the Ruler was held at a much greater distance from the Knives, the Fringes where they were farther from the Place of their Meeting, were a little narrower, and became something broader and broader as they approach'd nearer and nearer to one another, and after they met they cross'd one another, and then became much broader than before.
Whence I gather that the distances at which the Fringes pass by the Knives are not increased nor alter'd by the approach of the Knives, but the Angles in which the Rays are there bent are much increased by that approach; and that the Knife which is nearest any Ray determines which way the Ray shall be bent, and the other Knife increases the bent.
Obs.9. When the Rays fell very obliquely upon the Ruler at the distance of the third Part of an Inch from the Knives, the dark Line between the first and second Fringe of the Shadow of one Knife, and the dark Line between the first and second Fringe of the Shadow of the other knife met with one another, at the distance of the fifth Part of an Inch from the end of the Light which passed between the Knives at theconcourse of their edges. And therefore the distance of the edges of the Knives at the meeting of these dark Lines was the 160th Part of an Inch. For as four Inches to the eighth Part of an Inch, so is any Length of the edges of the Knives measured from the point of their concourse to the distance of the edges of the Knives at the end of that Length, and so is the fifth Part of an Inch to the 160th Part. So then the dark Lines above-mention'd meet in the middle of the Light which passes between the Knives where they are distant the 160th Part of an Inch, and the one half of that Light passes by the edge of one Knife at a distance not greater than the 320th Part of an Inch, and falling upon the Paper makes the Fringes of the Shadow of that Knife, and the other half passes by the edge of the other Knife, at a distance not greater than the 320th Part of an Inch, and falling upon the Paper makes the Fringes of the Shadow of the other Knife. But if the Paper be held at a distance from the Knives greater than the third Part of an Inch, the dark Lines above-mention'd meet at a greater distance than the fifth Part of an Inch from the end of the Light which passed between the Knives at the concourse of their edges; and therefore the Light which falls upon the Paper where those dark Lines meet passes between the Knives where the edges are distant above the 160th part of an Inch.
For at another time, when the two Knives were distant eight Feet and five Inches from the little hole in the Window, made with a small Pin as above, theLight which fell upon the Paper where the aforesaid dark lines met, passed between the Knives, where the distance between their edges was as in the following Table, when the distance of the Paper from the Knives was also as follows.
Distances of the Paperfrom the Knives in Inches.Distances between the edges of theKnives in millesimalparts of an Inch.1-1/2.0'0123-1/3.0'0208-3/5.0'03432.0'05796.0'081131.0'087
And hence I gather, that the Light which makes the Fringes upon the Paper is not the same Light at all distances of the Paper from the Knives, but when the Paper is held near the Knives, the Fringes are made by Light which passes by the edges of the Knives at a less distance, and is more bent than when the Paper is held at a greater distance from the Knives.
Fig. 3.Fig. 3.
Obs.10. When the Fringes of the Shadows of the Knives fell perpendicularly upon a Paper at a great distance from the Knives, they were in the form of Hyperbola's, and their Dimensions were as follows. Let CA, CB [inFig.3.] represent Lines drawn upon the Paper parallel to the edges of the Knives, and between which all the Light would fall, if it passed between the edges of the Knives without inflexion; DE a Right Line drawn through C making the Angles ACD, BCE, equal to one another, and terminating all the Light which falls upon the Paper from the point where the edges of the Knives meet;eis,fkt, andglv, three hyperbolical Lines representing the Terminus of the Shadow of one of the Knives, the dark Line between the first and second Fringes of that Shadow, and the dark Line between the second and third Fringes of the same Shadow;xip,ykq, andzlr, three other hyperbolical Lines representing the Terminus of the Shadow of the other Knife, the dark Line between the first and second Fringes of that Shadow, and the dark line between the second and third Fringes of the same Shadow. And conceive that these three Hyperbola's are like and equal to the former three, and cross them in the pointsi,k, andl, and that the Shadows of the Knives are terminated and distinguish'd from the first luminous Fringes by the lineseisandxip, until the meeting and crossing of the Fringes, and then those lines cross the Fringes in the form of dark lines, terminating the first luminous Fringes within side, and distinguishing them from another Light which begins to appear ati, and illuminates all the triangular spaceipDEscomprehended by these dark lines, and the right line DE. Of these Hyperbola's one Asymptote is the line DE, and their other Asymptotes are parallel to the lines CA and CB. Letrvrepresent a line drawn any where upon the Paper parallel to the Asymptote DE, and let this line cross the right lines AC inm, and BC inn, and the six dark hyperbolicallines inp,q,r;s,t,v; and by measuring the distancesps,qt,rv, and thence collecting the lengths of the Ordinatesnp,nq,nrorms,mt,mv, and doing this at several distances of the linervfrom the Asymptote DD, you may find as many points of these Hyperbola's as you please, and thereby know that these curve lines are Hyperbola's differing little from the conical Hyperbola. And by measuring the lines Ci, Ck, Cl, you may find other points of these Curves.
For instance; when the Knives were distant from the hole in the Window ten Feet, and the Paper from the Knives nine Feet, and the Angle contained by the edges of the Knives to which the Angle ACB is equal, was subtended by a Chord which was to the Radius as 1 to 32, and the distance of the linervfrom the Asymptote DE was half an Inch: I measured the linesps,qt,rv, and found them 0'35, 0'65, 0'98 Inches respectively; and by adding to their halfs the line 1/2mn, (which here was the 128th part of an Inch, or 0'0078 Inches,) the Sumsnp,nq,nr, were 0'1828, 0'3328, 0'4978 Inches. I measured also the distances of the brightest parts of the Fringes which run betweenpqandst,qrandtv, and next beyondrandv, and found them 0'5, 0'8, and 1'17 Inches.
Obs.11. The Sun shining into my darken'd Room through a small round hole made in a Plate of Lead with a slender Pin, as above; I placed at the hole a Prism to refract the Light, and form on the opposite Wall the Spectrum of Colours, described in the third Experiment of the first Book. And then I found that the Shadows of all Bodies held in the colour'dLight between the Prism and the Wall, were border'd with Fringes of the Colour of that Light in which they were held. In the full red Light they were totally red without any sensible blue or violet, and in the deep blue Light they were totally blue without any sensible red or yellow; and so in the green Light they were totally green, excepting a little yellow and blue, which were mixed in the green Light of the Prism. And comparing the Fringes made in the several colour'd Lights, I found that those made in the red Light were largest, those made in the violet were least, and those made in the green were of a middle bigness. For the Fringes with which the Shadow of a Man's Hair were bordered, being measured cross the Shadow at the distance of six Inches from the Hair, the distance between the middle and most luminous part of the first or innermost Fringe on one side of the Shadow, and that of the like Fringe on the other side of the Shadow, was in the full red Light 1/37-1/4 of an Inch, and in the full violet 7/46. And the like distance between the middle and most luminous parts of the second Fringes on either side the Shadow was in the full red Light 1/22, and in the violet 1/27 of an Inch. And these distances of the Fringes held the same proportion at all distances from the Hair without any sensible variation.
So then the Rays which made these Fringes in the red Light passed by the Hair at a greater distance than those did which made the like Fringes in the violet; and therefore the Hair in causing theseFringes acted alike upon the red Light or least refrangible Rays at a greater distance, and upon the violet or most refrangible Rays at a less distance, and by those actions disposed the red Light into Larger Fringes, and the violet into smaller, and the Lights of intermediate Colours into Fringes of intermediate bignesses without changing the Colour of any sort of Light.
When therefore the Hair in the first and second of these Observations was held in the white beam of the Sun's Light, and cast a Shadow which was border'd with three Fringes of coloured Light, those Colours arose not from any new modifications impress'd upon the Rays of Light by the Hair, but only from the various inflexions whereby the several Sorts of Rays were separated from one another, which before separation, by the mixture of all their Colours, composed the white beam of the Sun's Light, but whenever separated compose Lights of the several Colours which they are originally disposed to exhibit. In this 11th Observation, where the Colours are separated before the Light passes by the Hair, the least refrangible Rays, which when separated from the rest make red, were inflected at a greater distance from the Hair, so as to make three red Fringes at a greater distance from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair; and the most refrangible Rays which when separated make violet, were inflected at a less distance from the Hair, so as to make three violet Fringes at a less distance from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair. And other Raysof intermediate degrees of Refrangibility were inflected at intermediate distances from the Hair, so as to make Fringes of intermediate Colours at intermediate distances from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair. And in the second Observation, where all the Colours are mix'd in the white Light which passes by the Hair, these Colours are separated by the various inflexions of the Rays, and the Fringes which they make appear all together, and the innermost Fringes being contiguous make one broad Fringe composed of all the Colours in due order, the violet lying on the inside of the Fringe next the Shadow, the red on the outside farthest from the Shadow, and the blue, green, and yellow, in the middle. And, in like manner, the middlemost Fringes of all the Colours lying in order, and being contiguous, make another broad Fringe composed of all the Colours; and the outmost Fringes of all the Colours lying in order, and being contiguous, make a third broad Fringe composed of all the Colours. These are the three Fringes of colour'd Light with which the Shadows of all Bodies are border'd in the second Observation.
When I made the foregoing Observations, I design'd to repeat most of them with more care and exactness, and to make some new ones for determining the manner how the Rays of Light are bent in their passage by Bodies, for making the Fringes of Colours with the dark lines between them. But I was then interrupted, and cannot now think of taking these things into farther Consideration. And since Ihave not finish'd this part of my Design, I shall conclude with proposing only some Queries, in order to a farther search to be made by others.
Query1. Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays; and is not this action (cæteris paribus) strongest at the least distance?
Qu.2. Do not the Rays which differ in Refrangibility differ also in Flexibity; and are they not by their different Inflexions separated from one another, so as after separation to make the Colours in the three Fringes above described? And after what manner are they inflected to make those Fringes?
Qu.3. Are not the Rays of Light in passing by the edges and sides of Bodies, bent several times backwards and forwards, with a motion like that of an Eel? And do not the three Fringes of colour'd Light above-mention'd arise from three such bendings?
Qu.4. Do not the Rays of Light which fall upon Bodies, and are reflected or refracted, begin to bend before they arrive at the Bodies; and are they not reflected, refracted, and inflected, by one and the same Principle, acting variously in various Circumstances?
Qu.5. Do not Bodies and Light act mutually upon one another; that is to say, Bodies upon Light in emitting, reflecting, refracting and inflecting it, and Light upon Bodies for heating them, and putting their parts into a vibrating motion wherein heat consists?
Qu.6. Do not black Bodies conceive heat more easily from Light than those of other Colours do, byreason that the Light falling on them is not reflected outwards, but enters the Bodies, and is often reflected and refracted within them, until it be stifled and lost?
Qu.7. Is not the strength and vigor of the action between Light and sulphureous Bodies observed above, one reason why sulphureous Bodies take fire more readily, and burn more vehemently than other Bodies do?
Qu.8. Do not all fix'd Bodies, when heated beyond a certain degree, emit Light and shine; and is not this Emission perform'd by the vibrating motions of their parts? And do not all Bodies which abound with terrestrial parts, and especially with sulphureous ones, emit Light as often as those parts are sufficiently agitated; whether that agitation be made by Heat, or by Friction, or Percussion, or Putrefaction, or by any vital Motion, or any other Cause? As for instance; Sea-Water in a raging Storm; Quick-silver agitated invacuo; the Back of a Cat, or Neck of a Horse, obliquely struck or rubbed in a dark place; Wood, Flesh and Fish while they putrefy; Vapours arising from putrefy'd Waters, usually call'dIgnes Fatui; Stacks of moist Hay or Corn growing hot by fermentation; Glow-worms and the Eyes of some Animals by vital Motions; the vulgarPhosphorusagitated by the attrition of any Body, or by the acid Particles of the Air; Amber and some Diamonds by striking, pressing or rubbing them; Scrapings of Steel struck off with a Flint; Iron hammer'd very nimbly till it become so hot as to kindle Sulphurthrown upon it; the Axletrees of Chariots taking fire by the rapid rotation of the Wheels; and some Liquors mix'd with one another whose Particles come together with an Impetus, as Oil of Vitriol distilled from its weight of Nitre, and then mix'd with twice its weight of Oil of Anniseeds. So also a Globe of Glass about 8 or 10 Inches in diameter, being put into a Frame where it may be swiftly turn'd round its Axis, will in turning shine where it rubs against the palm of ones Hand apply'd to it: And if at the same time a piece of white Paper or white Cloth, or the end of ones Finger be held at the distance of about a quarter of an Inch or half an Inch from that part of the Glass where it is most in motion, the electrick Vapour which is excited by the friction of the Glass against the Hand, will by dashing against the white Paper, Cloth or Finger, be put into such an agitation as to emit Light, and make the white Paper, Cloth or Finger, appear lucid like a Glowworm; and in rushing out of the Glass will sometimes push against the finger so as to be felt. And the same things have been found by rubbing a long and large Cylinder or Glass or Amber with a Paper held in ones hand, and continuing the friction till the Glass grew warm.
Qu.9. Is not Fire a Body heated so hot as to emit Light copiously? For what else is a red hot Iron than Fire? And what else is a burning Coal than red hot Wood?
Qu.10. Is not Flame a Vapour, Fume or Exhalation heated red hot, that is, so hot as to shine? ForBodies do not flame without emitting a copious Fume, and this Fume burns in the Flame. TheIgnis Fatuusis a Vapour shining without heat, and is there not the same difference between this Vapour and Flame, as between rotten Wood shining without heat and burning Coals of Fire? In distilling hot Spirits, if the Head of the Still be taken off, the Vapour which ascends out of the Still will take fire at the Flame of a Candle, and turn into Flame, and the Flame will run along the Vapour from the Candle to the Still. Some Bodies heated by Motion, or Fermentation, if the heat grow intense, fume copiously, and if the heat be great enough the Fumes will shine and become Flame. Metals in fusion do not flame for want of a copious Fume, except Spelter, which fumes copiously, and thereby flames. All flaming Bodies, as Oil, Tallow, Wax, Wood, fossil Coals, Pitch, Sulphur, by flaming waste and vanish into burning Smoke, which Smoke, if the Flame be put out, is very thick and visible, and sometimes smells strongly, but in the Flame loses its smell by burning, and according to the nature of the Smoke the Flame is of several Colours, as that of Sulphur blue, that of Copper open'd with sublimate green, that of Tallow yellow, that of Camphire white. Smoke passing through Flame cannot but grow red hot, and red hot Smoke can have no other appearance than that of Flame. When Gun-powder takes fire, it goes away into Flaming Smoke. For the Charcoal and Sulphur easily take fire, and set fire to the Nitre, and the Spirit of the Nitre being thereby rarified into Vapour,rushes out with Explosion much after the manner that the Vapour of Water rushes out of an Æolipile; the Sulphur also being volatile is converted into Vapour, and augments the Explosion. And the acid Vapour of the Sulphur (namely that which distils under a Bell into Oil of Sulphur,) entring violently into the fix'd Body of the Nitre, sets loose the Spirit of the Nitre, and excites a great Fermentation, whereby the Heat is farther augmented, and the fix'd Body of the Nitre is also rarified into Fume, and the Explosion is thereby made more vehement and quick. For if Salt of Tartar be mix'd with Gun-powder, and that Mixture be warm'd till it takes fire, the Explosion will be more violent and quick than that of Gun-powder alone; which cannot proceed from any other cause than the action of the Vapour of the Gun-powder upon the Salt of Tartar, whereby that Salt is rarified. The Explosion of Gun-powder arises therefore from the violent action whereby all the Mixture being quickly and vehemently heated, is rarified and converted into Fume and Vapour: which Vapour, by the violence of that action, becoming so hot as to shine, appears in the form of Flame.
Qu.11. Do not great Bodies conserve their heat the longest, their parts heating one another, and may not great dense and fix'd Bodies, when heated beyond a certain degree, emit Light so copiously, as by the Emission and Re-action of its Light, and the Reflexions and Refractions of its Rays within its Pores to grow still hotter, till it comes to a certain period of heat, such as is that of the Sun? And are not theSun and fix'd Stars great Earths vehemently hot, whose heat is conserved by the greatness of the Bodies, and the mutual Action and Reaction between them, and the Light which they emit, and whose parts are kept from fuming away, not only by their fixity, but also by the vast weight and density of the Atmospheres incumbent upon them; and very strongly compressing them, and condensing the Vapours and Exhalations which arise from them? For if Water be made warm in any pellucid Vessel emptied of Air, that Water in theVacuumwill bubble and boil as vehemently as it would in the open Air in a Vessel set upon the Fire till it conceives a much greater heat. For the weight of the incumbent Atmosphere keeps down the Vapours, and hinders the Water from boiling, until it grow much hotter than is requisite to make it boilin vacuo. Also a mixture of Tin and Lead being put upon a red hot Ironin vacuoemits a Fume and Flame, but the same Mixture in the open Air, by reason of the incumbent Atmosphere, does not so much as emit any Fume which can be perceived by Sight. In like manner the great weight of the Atmosphere which lies upon the Globe of the Sun may hinder Bodies there from rising up and going away from the Sun in the form of Vapours and Fumes, unless by means of a far greater heat than that which on the Surface of our Earth would very easily turn them into Vapours and Fumes. And the same great weight may condense those Vapours and Exhalations as soon as they shall at any time begin to ascend from the Sun, and make thempresently fall back again into him, and by that action increase his Heat much after the manner that in our Earth the Air increases the Heat of a culinary Fire. And the same weight may hinder the Globe of the Sun from being diminish'd, unless by the Emission of Light, and a very small quantity of Vapours and Exhalations.
Qu.12. Do not the Rays of Light in falling upon the bottom of the Eye excite Vibrations in theTunica Retina? Which Vibrations, being propagated along the solid Fibres of the optick Nerves into the Brain, cause the Sense of seeing. For because dense Bodies conserve their Heat a long time, and the densest Bodies conserve their Heat the longest, the Vibrations of their parts are of a lasting nature, and therefore may be propagated along solid Fibres of uniform dense Matter to a great distance, for conveying into the Brain the impressions made upon all the Organs of Sense. For that Motion which can continue long in one and the same part of a Body, can be propagated a long way from one part to another, supposing the Body homogeneal, so that the Motion may not be reflected, refracted, interrupted or disorder'd by any unevenness of the Body.
Qu.13. Do not several sorts of Rays make Vibrations of several bignesses, which according to their bignesses excite Sensations of several Colours, much after the manner that the Vibrations of the Air, according to their several bignesses excite Sensations of several Sounds? And particularly do not the most refrangible Rays excite the shortest Vibrations formaking a Sensation of deep violet, the least refrangible the largest for making a Sensation of deep red, and the several intermediate sorts of Rays, Vibrations of several intermediate bignesses to make Sensations of the several intermediate Colours?
Qu.14. May not the harmony and discord of Colours arise from the proportions of the Vibrations propagated through the Fibres of the optick Nerves into the Brain, as the harmony and discord of Sounds arise from the proportions of the Vibrations of the Air? For some Colours, if they be view'd together, are agreeable to one another, as those of Gold and Indigo, and others disagree.
Qu.15. Are not the Species of Objects seen with both Eyes united where the optick Nerves meet before they come into the Brain, the Fibres on the right side of both Nerves uniting there, and after union going thence into the Brain in the Nerve which is on the right side of the Head, and the Fibres on the left side of both Nerves uniting in the same place, and after union going into the Brain in the Nerve which is on the left side of the Head, and these two Nerves meeting in the Brain in such a manner that their Fibres make but one entire Species or Picture, half of which on the right side of the Sensorium comes from the right side of both Eyes through the right side of both optick Nerves to the place where the Nerves meet, and from thence on the right side of the Head into the Brain, and the other half on the left side of the Sensorium comes in like manner from the left side of both Eyes. Forthe optick Nerves of such Animals as look the same way with both Eyes (as of Men, Dogs, Sheep, Oxen, &c.) meet before they come into the Brain, but the optick Nerves of such Animals as do not look the same way with both Eyes (as of Fishes, and of the Chameleon,) do not meet, if I am rightly inform'd.
Qu.16. When a Man in the dark presses either corner of his Eye with his Finger, and turns his Eye away from his Finger, he will see a Circle of Colours like those in the Feather of a Peacock's Tail. If the Eye and the Finger remain quiet these Colours vanish in a second Minute of Time, but if the Finger be moved with a quavering Motion they appear again. Do not these Colours arise from such Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Pressure and Motion of the Finger, as, at other times are excited there by Light for causing Vision? And do not the Motions once excited continue about a Second of Time before they cease? And when a Man by a stroke upon his Eye sees a flash of Light, are not the like Motions excited in theRetinaby the stroke? And when a Coal of Fire moved nimbly in the circumference of a Circle, makes the whole circumference appear like a Circle of Fire; is it not because the Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Rays of Light are of a lasting nature, and continue till the Coal of Fire in going round returns to its former place? And considering the lastingness of the Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by Light, are they not of a vibrating nature?
Qu.17. If a stone be thrown into stagnating Water,the Waves excited thereby continue some time to arise in the place where the Stone fell into the Water, and are propagated from thence in concentrick Circles upon the Surface of the Water to great distances. And the Vibrations or Tremors excited in the Air by percussion, continue a little time to move from the place of percussion in concentrick Spheres to great distances. And in like manner, when a Ray of Light falls upon the Surface of any pellucid Body, and is there refracted or reflected, may not Waves of Vibrations, or Tremors, be thereby excited in the refracting or reflecting Medium at the point of Incidence, and continue to arise there, and to be propagated from thence as long as they continue to arise and be propagated, when they are excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Pressure or Motion of the Finger, or by the Light which comes from the Coal of Fire in the Experiments above-mention'd? and are not these Vibrations propagated from the point of Incidence to great distances? And do they not overtake the Rays of Light, and by overtaking them successively, do they not put them into the Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission described above? For if the Rays endeavour to recede from the densest part of the Vibration, they may be alternately accelerated and retarded by the Vibrations overtaking them.
Qu.18. If in two large tall cylindrical Vessels of Glass inverted, two little Thermometers be suspended so as not to touch the Vessels, and the Air be drawn out of one of these Vessels, and these Vesselsthus prepared be carried out of a cold place into a warm one; the Thermometerin vacuowill grow warm as much, and almost as soon as the Thermometer which is notin vacuo. And when the Vessels are carried back into the cold place, the Thermometerin vacuowill grow cold almost as soon as the other Thermometer. Is not the Heat of the warm Room convey'd through theVacuumby the Vibrations of a much subtiler Medium than Air, which after the Air was drawn out remained in theVacuum? And is not this Medium the same with that Medium by which Light is refracted and reflected, and by whose Vibrations Light communicates Heat to Bodies, and is put into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission? And do not the Vibrations of this Medium in hot Bodies contribute to the intenseness and duration of their Heat? And do not hot Bodies communicate their Heat to contiguous cold ones, by the Vibrations of this Medium propagated from them into the cold ones? And is not this Medium exceedingly more rare and subtile than the Air, and exceedingly more elastick and active? And doth it not readily pervade all Bodies? And is it not (by its elastick force) expanded through all the Heavens?
Qu.19. Doth not the Refraction of Light proceed from the different density of this Æthereal Medium in different places, the Light receding always from the denser parts of the Medium? And is not the density thereof greater in free and open Spaces void of Air and other grosser Bodies, than within the Pores of Water, Glass, Crystal, Gems, and other compactBodies? For when Light passes through Glass or Crystal, and falling very obliquely upon the farther Surface thereof is totally reflected, the total Reflexion ought to proceed rather from the density and vigour of the Medium without and beyond the Glass, than from the rarity and weakness thereof.
Qu.20. Doth not this Æthereal Medium in passing out of Water, Glass, Crystal, and other compact and dense Bodies into empty Spaces, grow denser and denser by degrees, and by that means refract the Rays of Light not in a point, but by bending them gradually in curve Lines? And doth not the gradual condensation of this Medium extend to some distance from the Bodies, and thereby cause the Inflexions of the Rays of Light, which pass by the edges of dense Bodies, at some distance from the Bodies?
Qu.21. Is not this Medium much rarer within the dense Bodies of the Sun, Stars, Planets and Comets, than in the empty celestial Spaces between them? And in passing from them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great Bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the Bodies; every Body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the Medium towards the rarer? For if this Medium be rarer within the Sun's Body than at its Surface, and rarer there than at the hundredth part of an Inch from its Body, and rarer there than at the fiftieth part of an Inch from its Body, and rarer there than at the Orb ofSaturn; I see no reason why the Increase ofdensity should stop any where, and not rather be continued through all distances from the Sun toSaturn, and beyond. And though this Increase of density may at great distances be exceeding slow, yet if the elastick force of this Medium be exceeding great, it may suffice to impel Bodies from the denser parts of the Medium towards the rarer, with all that power which we call Gravity. And that the elastick force of this Medium is exceeding great, may be gather'd from the swiftness of its Vibrations. Sounds move about 1140EnglishFeet in a second Minute of Time, and in seven or eight Minutes of Time they move about one hundredEnglishMiles. Light moves from the Sun to us in about seven or eight Minutes of Time, which distance is about 70,000,000EnglishMiles, supposing the horizontal Parallax of the Sun to be about 12´´. And the Vibrations or Pulses of this Medium, that they may cause the alternate Fits of easy Transmission and easy Reflexion, must be swifter than Light, and by consequence above 700,000 times swifter than Sounds. And therefore the elastick force of this Medium, in proportion to its density, must be above 700000 x 700000 (that is, above 490,000,000,000) times greater than the elastick force of the Air is in proportion to its density. For the Velocities of the Pulses of elastick Mediums are in a subduplicateRatioof the Elasticities and the Rarities of the Mediums taken together.
As Attraction is stronger in small Magnets than in great ones in proportion to their Bulk, and Gravity is greater in the Surfaces of small Planets than inthose of great ones in proportion to their bulk, and small Bodies are agitated much more by electric attraction than great ones; so the smallness of the Rays of Light may contribute very much to the power of the Agent by which they are refracted. And so if any one should suppose thatÆther(like our Air) may contain Particles which endeavour to recede from one another (for I do not know what thisÆtheris) and that its Particles are exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or even than those of Light: The exceeding smallness of its Particles may contribute to the greatness of the force by which those Particles may recede from one another, and thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and elastick than Air, and by consequence exceedingly less able to resist the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more able to press upon gross Bodies, by endeavouring to expand it self.
Qu.22. May not Planets and Comets, and all gross Bodies, perform their Motions more freely, and with less resistance in this Æthereal Medium than in any Fluid, which fills all Space adequately without leaving any Pores, and by consequence is much denser than Quick-silver or Gold? And may not its resistance be so small, as to be inconsiderable? For instance; If thisÆther(for so I will call it) should be supposed 700000 times more elastick than our Air, and above 700000 times more rare; its resistance would be above 600,000,000 times less than that of Water. And so small a resistance would scarce make any sensible alteration in the Motions of the Planetsin ten thousand Years. If any one would ask how a Medium can be so rare, let him tell me how the Air, in the upper parts of the Atmosphere, can be above an hundred thousand thousand times rarer than Gold. Let him also tell me, how an electrick Body can by Friction emit an Exhalation so rare and subtile, and yet so potent, as by its Emission to cause no sensible Diminution of the weight of the electrick Body, and to be expanded through a Sphere, whose Diameter is above two Feet, and yet to be able to agitate and carry up Leaf Copper, or Leaf Gold, at the distance of above a Foot from the electrick Body? And how the Effluvia of a Magnet can be so rare and subtile, as to pass through a Plate of Glass without any Resistance or Diminution of their Force, and yet so potent as to turn a magnetick Needle beyond the Glass?
Qu.23. Is not Vision perform'd chiefly by the Vibrations of this Medium, excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Rays of Light, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of the optick Nerves into the place of Sensation? And is not Hearing perform'd by the Vibrations either of this or some other Medium, excited in the auditory Nerves by the Tremors of the Air, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of those Nerves into the place of Sensation? And so of the other Senses.
Qu.24. Is not Animal Motion perform'd by the Vibrations of this Medium, excited in the Brain by the power of the Will, and propagated from thencethrough the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of the Nerves into the Muscles, for contracting and dilating them? I suppose that the Capillamenta of the Nerves are each of them solid and uniform, that the vibrating Motion of the Æthereal Medium may be propagated along them from one end to the other uniformly, and without interruption: For Obstructions in the Nerves create Palsies. And that they may be sufficiently uniform, I suppose them to be pellucid when view'd singly, tho' the Reflexions in their cylindrical Surfaces may make the whole Nerve (composed of many Capillamenta) appear opake and white. For opacity arises from reflecting Surfaces, such as may disturb and interrupt the Motions of this Medium.