PART III.MISCELLANEOUS ADDRESSES.
CHAPTER I.INSTRUCTIVE ADDRESS.
We will give only a brief consideration to the various fields of oratory outside the pulpit, because the greater number of principles already laid down can be applied, with slight modifications, to any kind of speech. The different varieties of secular address may be divided as follows:
I. Instructive Oratory.II. Legal Oratory.III. Deliberative Oratory.IV. Popular Oratory.V. Controversial Oratory.
I. Instructive Oratory.II. Legal Oratory.III. Deliberative Oratory.IV. Popular Oratory.V. Controversial Oratory.
I. Instructive Oratory.II. Legal Oratory.III. Deliberative Oratory.IV. Popular Oratory.V. Controversial Oratory.
I. Instructive Oratory.
II. Legal Oratory.
III. Deliberative Oratory.
IV. Popular Oratory.
V. Controversial Oratory.
We apply the first term to all oral teaching, more connected than question and answer, and to all lectures that have instruction for their primary object. This species of discourse differs from the sermon in the absence of persuasion, rather than in its positive character. The lecturer should thoroughly understand the topic he attempts to unfold, and place it in the clearest possible light. Much illustration is needed, for the subject is usually a novel one to the greater portion of the audience, and can be best explained by comparison with familiar objects. It should have its strong central points, which can be easily remembered, and around which the minor parts of the discourse may be grouped, for if the whole consist of isolated facts pouredforth without generalization or arrangement, no distinct impression will be left.
Appeals to passion and emotion are less necessary in lectures than in most other kinds of speech. Yet so closely are heart and intellect connected, that we can arouse attention, and secure a more durable result, if the facts we narrate are linked with the experiences and emotions of life.
The practice of writing is even more prevalent when applied to lectures than to sermons, and the reasons urged in its favor have more plausibility. As the lecturer does not aim to move his hearers to immediate action, the advantages of direct address are less required. Still he wishes to interest them, and it may be questioned whether this can, in any case, be so well accomplished from manuscript. But it is urged that in a scientific lecture there is often too great a number of detached facts to be easily remembered. This may be true, but it suggests another important question: if they cannot be recalled by the speaker who has reviewed them again and again for days together, how can it be expected that those who only hear them read over once, will retain any distinct impression? A clearer generalization of the whole discourse, and a proper arrangement of each fact under the principle which it illustrates, would go far to obviate both difficulties. Yet, in the use of statistics or other items, about which the speaker wishes to be precise, though he may only care to give the audience a general conception of them, notes will be a great relief to the memory, and the statement of principles deduced can be still made in direct address.
After a man has become so famous that each word he utters will be listened to with profound attention, because it comes from him, he may write safely. This is especially the case with those who have become authorities in their own departments of knowledge. What they say is received rather as a conclusion to argument, than as an assertion to be weighed, and the calm, deliberate reading of such final statements has all needed impressiveness. But if we have notattained this position, we had better employ every legitimate means to interest our audiences.
It is often claimed by the advocates of reading, that a literary lecture must be written to secure the polish and smoothness needful in the treatment of such themes. It will not do, say they, to give, in our words and manner, an illustration of the absence of the very qualities we praise. But surely men can speak on a subject they understand in good grammar and fitting language, without having first placed each word on paper! And if they attempt much beyond this they lead the mind of the hearer from the subject to a consideration of the skill of the lecturer. We are ready to grant that compositions should be read, not spoken, when ever they cease to instruct about something else, and become an exhibition in themselves. A poet is right in reading his poem; and even in prose, if we wish to call attention to our melodious words, and our skill in literary composition, instead of the subject we have nominally taken, it will be well to write. But the resulting composition will not be a lecture.
The field for instructive lectures is constantly enlarging. In former times they were monopolized by university professors, and very few persons sought to teach the people. But this has changed. There are now many more schools where courses of lectures are given on various topics, and every town of any pretension has its annual lecture course. Even these are not sufficient to meet the increasing demand, and, as every community cannot pay Beecher or Gough from one to five hundred dollars for an evening’s entertainment, there is abundant scope for humbler talent. Strolling lecturers, without character or knowledge, reap a rich harvest from the credulity of the people. Even the noble science of phrenology is often disgraced by quacks, who perambulate the country and pretend to explain its mysteries—sometimes telling character and fortunes at the same time. So far has this prostitution of talent and opportunity gone, that the village lecturer is often placed in a category with circusclowns and negro minstrels. But this should not be, and no class could do more to prevent it than the clergy. If they would each prepare a lecture or two upon some important subject they have mastered, they could extend their usefulness, and teach others besides their own flocks.
Lecturers are becoming more numerous and popular. New sciences and arts are continually springing into being, and there is no way that a knowledge of them can be so readily diffused among the masses of the people, as by public addresses upon them. Even the oldest of the sciences—Astronomy—has been brought to the knowledge of thousands who otherwise would have remained in ignorance of its mysteries. It was thus that the lamented General O. M. Mitchel succeeded in awakening public interest, and in securing funds for the erection of his observatory at Cincinnati.
Benefit lectures are very common. In these the services of the lecturer are given gratis, or for a nominal compensation, and persons are induced to purchase tickets that some good cause may be benefited by the proceeds. This is the most pleasant of compromises, and is surely better than fairs, gift drawings, etc., although when the patronage of the public is thus secured for a lecture that has no real merit, the benefit is more questionable.
The most important point in a lecture is that the subject be thoroughly understood, and so arranged that there may be no difficulty in grasping the whole thought. Vivacity and life will prevent the audience from growing weary; wit, if it be true and delicate, will add to the interest, and has a far larger legitimate sphere than in a sermon. Ornaments, too, may abound, provided they do not call attention away from the subject, or weaken the force of expression. The plan of a lecture may be constructed in a manner similar to that of a sermon, as the end in view is not very different. If this be well arranged, and all the principles, facts and illustrations be properly placed, no need of writing will be felt.
CHAPTER II.MISCELLANEOUS ADDRESS—LEGAL—DELIBERATE—POPULAR—CONTROVERSIAL.
The speech adapted to the bench and bar presents some peculiar features. The lawyer deals with facts and living issues. He works for immediate results, and therefore uses the means best adapted to secure them. The use of manuscript, which increases in proportion as we remove from the sphere of passion, finds no place when life and property are at stake. The lawyer who would read his appeal to the jury in an exciting case, would have few others to make. At the bar the penalty for inefficiency is so rapid and certain, that every nerve is strained to avoid it. To argue with a lawyer against the use of written discourses, would be like proving the advantage of commerce to an Englishman. His danger lies in the opposite direction—that of caring too little for polish, and of making the verdict of the jury his only aim.
A lawyer should never contend for what he believes to be wrong. Yet the common estimate of the morality of attorneys is not based on fact. They may have greater temptations than some others, and many of them may fall, but another reason than this accounts for the grave imputations cast on them. In every suit, at least one party must be disappointed, and it is natural that, in his bitterness, he should throw discredit on all the agencies by which his hopes were destroyed. But this is most frequently groundless. The lawyer may be counsel for a man whom he knows to be in the wrong, but he ought never to take his stand ona false position. He may show any weakness in his adversary’s case, and see that all the provisions of the law are faithfully complied with, but must not endeavor to distort the truth. An adherence to this determination will soon give his words a power and influence that will more than counterbalance all disadvantages. Let him seek for the strong points in his own case, and then throw them into the simplest and boldest shape, not forgetting the importance of appealing to the heart, as well as head, of judge and jury.
The judge differs from the advocate in having both sides of the case to present, and in seeking truth rather than victory. As he stands upon the law, and unfolds its dictates, which are obeyed as soon as known, he has no need to appeal to passion, and can give his words with all calmness and certainty.
Under the most absolute monarchy there are always some things that men are left to settle according to their own pleasure, and when a number of persons have equal interest and authority this can only be done by discussion. In our own land the people bear rule, and the field of deliberation is almost infinitely widened. City councils, State and national legislatures, the governing societies of churches, parties, companies, and all organizations, have more or less of power to be exercised. If this were vested in a single will, silent pondering would determine each question, but in assemblies these must be decided by discussion, argument and vote.[1]
1.See rules for these in Appendix.
1.See rules for these in Appendix.
There is one general peculiarity that marks the speeches addressed to such a body; their main object is to give information. All are about to act, and are supposed to be diligently looking for the best course to be taken. This secures an interest in everything that really throws new light on the subject, while it often renders such an assemblage intolerant of mere declamation. In representative bodies there is also constant reference to the opinions and wishes of those for whom they act.
Such speeches are frequently intended to be read beyond the bounds of the audience where they are delivered, and for this reason are often elaborately prepared, and read at first. If they do truly give information, either in reference to principles or facts, they suffer from this less than any other class of addresses. They may be dry and unattractive in form, but if each concerned, feels that he is obtaining new facts for guidance, he will listen with patience. Yet, even then, a greater impression would be produced if the same accuracy and sureness of statement were embodied in spoken words. Let there first, be broad, statesmanlike views, a clear comprehension of the effects of measures, and perfect confidence in what we advocate, and then all the graces of speech may be added with the certainty that their effect will be that always produced by true eloquence.
A popular address differs from a lecture in having an element of persuasion in it. In fact, this is its principal characteristic. When we desire to incline the hearts of the people to some favorite cause, we assemble them together, and labor by all the arguments we can command, to induce them to adopt our views and enter on the course we recommend. Energy and earnestness are the qualities most uniformly successful. The people care little for the subtile niceties of speech, but they require that the man who addresses them should believe what he says, and feel the power of his own reasoning. A deep, strong, unfaltering conviction is always an element of strength.
Many speakers think it an advantage to flatter the prejudices of the people, but they are mistaken. Temporary applause may be won, but second thoughts are apt to detect the lurking insincerity, even if they do not overthrow the prejudice itself If the speaker be really under the influence of the same misconception as the audience, this is a different matter, for hearty devotion, even to the wrong, is contagious. But calm reasoning and truth are always best. These gave Abraham Lincoln the superiority over Stephen A. Douglas, making him more effective with the people than the latterwas, not withstanding his fervid eloquence. The one appealed to the reason of the people, the other to passion.
Humor has a place in the popular address not second to any other quality. A telling anecdote, or a good illustration (the homelier the better, if it be not coarse), will arrest attention and dwell longer on the memory, than the strongest argument.
Controversial oratory partakes of the nature of a battle, but should be something more than strife for victory. There is little danger of languid attention in this species of address, for opposition arouses both speaker and hearer.
The golden rule in all controversies, is to be certain of a solid basis of fact, and follow the guidance of true principles. Then we deserve success. But fair means only should be employed. It is so hard to see an adversary triumph even, when convinced of the correctness of his position, that we can scarcely forbear employing every artifice to prevent such a result. But we should never misrepresent our opponent. Even if he has been unfortunate in his explanations, and leaves the way open for a natural misconception, we should use our best efforts to understand what he really means, and give him the credit of that. We must also allow his reasoning its due force. No just argument ought ever to be weakened. Let us bring forward our views, and, if possible, show that they are truer and more firmly based than his. And if we see that this cannot be done, there is only one manly course left—to surrender at discretion. If we cannot maintain our views by clear proof, we should abandon them, and seek others that need no questionable support.