“Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,5and alum. Mix well with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and dry in shade.
“Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum. Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.
“Dark Grey. Take of the fruit ofCupressus sempervirens, seeds and seed pods of babul (Acacia arabica), iron-filings water, and alum. Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then wash and dry in the sun.
“Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (Onosma echioides), a thought of cochineal, manjit (Rubia cordifolia) or lac colour a very little, and cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.
“Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more. Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.
“Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after beating and good washing.
“Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade.”
Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of therug-producing countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality where the fabrics were woven.
Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art. The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand, not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by.
Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which, after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain. After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as wellas the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to instinct is the guide.
Plate 6. Feraghan RugPlate 6. Feraghan Rug
Plate 6. Feraghan Rug
There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning oftempus fugitor seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as did their fathers’ fathers.
NEAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam, and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case, roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.
Plate A.--An Upright Loom.Plate A.—An Upright Loom.
Plate A.—An Upright Loom.
Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides of the rug. Asthe work progresses, the plank is raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work progresses.
In PlateA(Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams. If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices. Two other rods, known as “Healds,” are then attached to the front and back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side. Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches them.
Plate 7. Feraghan RugPlate 7. Feraghan Rug
Plate 7. Feraghan Rug
The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.
A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow, perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back, recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed “herring bone” weave.
By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction, which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as is generally the case, from top to bottom.
The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhaton the number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several “filling threads” of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven, as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.
These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn appear together at the surface included between two6adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of tying this knot are shown in PlateB, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of which the second is known as a “right hand” and the third as a “left hand” knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese, many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in PlateB, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as “right-hand” or “left-hand” knots,7but in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by studying PlateB, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern, appear in rugs of shorter nap.
Ghiordes knots.Plate B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12, Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing between two rows of knots.
Plate B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12, Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing between two rows of knots.
The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern, which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.8
The Knot.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara, Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots of other rugs, as the Samarkand,Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity. Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again, as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced. For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls, Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly. Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna, each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp, as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply, the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than the width.
The Warp.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If, for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in PlateB, Figs. 7 and 7a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans, Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah, Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that one thread of warp toeach knot is depressed, so that the back has a slightly corrugated appearance (as in PlateB, Figs. 8 and 8a). And in the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp, included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in PlateB, Fig. 9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot. To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of inserting the threads of weft or “filling” between the rows of knots; but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled when they are tied.
The Weft.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers. Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas; the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are features peculiar to these separate classes with whichevery rug expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years ago.
Plate 8. Hamadan RugPlate 8. Hamadan Rug
Plate 8. Hamadan Rug
These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun, to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used, they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces, as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans, it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans, Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.
Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan, Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug, or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp. Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this unevenness is even moreconspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans, Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.
The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles. In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is very similar to that of Sehnas.9In almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same rug. In PlateB, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once, twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots, then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.
As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots, be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack, so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack. These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats, old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while the other is of a single ply.
The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.
Finish of Sides.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious, suggests the method employed.In Weft Overcasting (PlateB, Fig. 11, Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a Double Overcasting (PlateB, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage (PlateB, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (PlateB, Fig. 14) is used among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft, but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is “Mixed,” or made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords. Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be “attached” more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus “attached,” it is somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.
These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.
Plate 9. Sarouk RugPlate 9. Sarouk Rug
Plate 9. Sarouk Rug
Finish of Ends.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides, are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web, selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the evil eye.
In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.
The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without which expert understanding would be impossible.
HOWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour, Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.
In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of associations.
Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which over 1000 yearsb.c.was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers, the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited them.
Plate 10. Sarabend RugPlate 10. Sarabend Rug
Plate 10. Sarabend Rug
There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy.10
The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative. Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are designated “Stripes,” though they are frequently spoken of as separate borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side, known as “Guard stripes.” Very narrow stripes are sometimes called “Ribbon stripes,” and those of only one or two knots in width are called “Lines.” The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple; but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in character with those of the field.
The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than theborders. Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans. Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of immortality.