Plate 36. Kir-shehr Prayer RugPlate 36. Kir-shehr Prayer Rug
Plate 36. Kir-shehr Prayer Rug
The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of Persia. The typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some floralform occupying the central field, which is two or three times as long as wide. The weave resembles that of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes, each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent at the back, and both warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide, and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage.
Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs known by that name were once made in a district not far from Kashan, where rose bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be covered with conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again they may contain roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals, as if viewed from above. The most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour, such as red, blue, and yellow softened by shades of brown and green. Even the weft and the webs of the ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a two-cord selvage, warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of warp to each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly came in large sizes, are no longer made.
Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the district of Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in the past have furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The people are industrious, and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving. Some of their rugs closely resemble the Kurdish pieces, and others correspond with the Irans. In the technique of weave they often follow the Hamadans. On the outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad, where, also, rugs are woven for market.
For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah on the west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been partly occupied by a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as Afshars. They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks of Asia Minor, and the rugs of both tribes have many points of similarity. The wool of the nap is generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep. The patterns incorporate some of the floral features of Persian rugs, though they display many Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close resemblance to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by observing a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in Kazaks they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back, each half of a knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn closely against the warp, while in Kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is drawn closer.
In the country about Gozene, in the watershed of the Euphrates river, are made a few rugs for local use, though they occasionally reach Western markets. The pattern, which is very simple, usually consists of some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of maroon. Many of this class have a double foundation of warp; and frequently, at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel with the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the fact that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some knots and the right half of others. Occasionally, also, a knot is tied about four threads of warp. In other rugs of this class which have a single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of Mosuls.
The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their floral character, which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure. Some of these vines have been evolved from arabesques, and others from naturalistic tendrils, but all are graceful. In a few pieces the stripes contain rows of detached flowers, rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet unobtrusive colours, that are always in perfect harmony with those of the field. Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the exception of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most elegant, pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago.
Primary Stripes.—In PlateE, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a typical Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century carpets. It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe the angular and serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.
One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in PlateE, Fig. 2, bears a resemblance to the Herat stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had a common origin, since they were designed in adjoining and freely communicating districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of each flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the heads of birds.
Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian RugsPlate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs
Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs
The so-called turtle pattern, PlateE, Fig. 3, has probably been derived from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early as the beginning of the XV Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent “turtles” suggest the Herati pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans, Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically drawn and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and Serapis.
A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral bushes, is shown in PlateE, Fig. 4. It is also seen in some of the old rugs of Northwestern Persia. Another Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the Herati pattern, is represented in Fig. 5.
A single row of pears (PlateE, Fig. 6) is a characteristic Luristan stripe.
The dainty pattern of PlateE, Fig. 7, in which the vine has been abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device, shows a not unusual Herez stripe.
As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never crowded, and represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers. A stripe commonly seen in this class is represented in PlateE, Fig. 8. It is also seen in the Bijars.
On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh district, which is separated only by the Aras river from Caucasia, its stripes show a combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other Persian pieces. PlateE, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a rosette, and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans. PlateE, Fig. 10, represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine.
A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower, which is frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is shown in PlateE, Fig. 11.
In PlateE, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and roses that now and then is seen in old Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs of Northwestern Persia.
The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in PlateE, Fig. 14, is sometimes seen in stripes of Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is a characteristic of this class.
Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former are often more mechanically drawn than the latter. In PlateE, Fig. 15,is a stripe from an old and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and King Solomon’s eight-pointed star.
Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes is the well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this stripe (PlateE, Fig. 16). Its presence at once indicates that the piece is either a Sarabend or an Iran copy.
In PlateE, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear pattern of a Meshed stripe. The graceful form, resembling in a measure the Indian drawing, is peculiar to these stripes.
The Kirman stripe (PlateE, Fig. 18) invariably contains red roses naturalistically drawn, surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems. This is one of the most beautiful of Persian border patterns.
Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah stripe, one of which appears in PlateE, Fig. 19, with mechanically drawn flowers, leaves, and vines.
The formal pattern (PlateE, Fig. 20) of octagons surrounded by latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of Shiraz rugs, and indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic influences.
The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of these stripes is shown in PlateE, Fig. 21.
Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of the former is represented in PlateE, Fig. 22.
Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.—The ornamentation of a large proportion of secondary stripes of Persian rugs consists of running vines, which fall within two divisions, according to the absence or presence of pendants.
PlateF, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from an inner stripe of a Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at each flexure.
In PlateF, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as Gorevans. Similar stripes are very common. As there is no pendant, the character of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures, one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star.
In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (PlateF, Fig. 3) consisting of an angular vine, from each flexure of which spring small designs like three-leaf clover.
Plate F. Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs
Plate F. Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs
Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as the Bijars and even Sehnas, is shown in PlateF, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a serrated leaf, and the other is a small rosette with short curving tendrils.
A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in PlateF, Fig. 5. At each flexure is a flower of four petals, and from alternating flexures spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine. Stripes of similar drawing appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350a. d.A further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in PlateF, Fig. 6.
One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown inPlate F, Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor carpets woven during the XIII Century, and also in some of the earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is seen in modern Persian rugs.
A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown inPlate F, Fig. 8. This pattern is seen in a large number of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls, Bijars, Kurdistans, and Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged to almost the form of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.
In another stripe (PlateF, Fig. 9), taken from a Feraghan, there is no particular enlargement to the vine, and the alternating pendants are buds and flowers of four petals.
A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads is shown in PlateF, Fig. 10. In this the vine represents serrated leaves, and suggests one of the Shirvan patterns.
A very similar stripe (PlateF, Fig. 11), taken from a Sehna, should be compared with those of Figs. 8 and 10, as it serves to illustrate the evolution of vine patterns. In fact, if a very large number of stripes were arranged in proper order, they would show almost imperceptible gradations from one type to another.
One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish tribes, is shown in PlateF, Fig. 12; and in Fig. 13 is another vine with pendent pear alternating with a rosette.
Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In PlateF, Figs. 14 and 15, for instance, is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at the sides and the ends of some moderately old Persian rugs. The former pattern bears a resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a series of connecting links.
A graceful pattern that is seen in Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of Northwestern Persia is represented in PlateF, Fig. 16. It was probably derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.
The reciprocal trefoil (PlateF, Fig. 17) which is constantly used in a tertiary stripe, is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral design. It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other pattern, as it is found not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends, Bijars, Sarouks, and Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan rugs, and in almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a tertiary stripe the simple ribbon pattern (PlateF, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost in the dim past, and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic meaning.
A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its well-authenticated age, contains the “Y” pattern shown in PlateF, Fig. 19. It is found in some Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.
One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in PlateF, Fig. 20, is frequently found in modern Persian rugs, as well as in Iranian carpets woven six centuries ago.
Colour Plate VI. Persian Garden CarpetColour Plate VI. Persian Garden Carpet
Colour Plate VI. Persian Garden Carpet
This carpet and the one at the Naesby House, Sweden, which it resembles in pattern but not in colouring, are, so far as known, the only complete carpets of this type. The Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle of the XVIII. Century; this is undoubtedly much older.
A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL “GARDEN” CARPET
(Reputed to have been made for Shah ’Abbās for Sefavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.
31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.
Statement of the owner
ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., LONDON.
The pattern represents a Persian garden divided into four sections by two intersecting streams, which are bordered by rows of cypress trees, alternating with bushes on which are birds. These sections are similarly divided by smaller streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each side, into plots containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks rest above the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the mellowing influence of time.
Legend:KNOT—H = HorizontallyP = PerpendicularlyWARP—g = goat’s hairl = linene = each equally prominentd = 1 to the knot depressedh = 1 to the knot doubled underWEFT—s = silkl = linenNo. = No. times crossing bet. two round knotsSIDES—O = overcastS = selvageLOWER ENDW = webS = SelvageK = Rows knotsL = warp loopsF = fringeUPPER ENDW = webS = selvageK = Rows knotsT = turned back and hemmedF = fringe
[] indicates the less frequent condition.
ALL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently grouped together and called “Turkish” rugs; but a more natural classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.
Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in the shadow of the walls where Cro[es]us lived and among villages where Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched, across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander’s conquering army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.
When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persianrugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.28Almost all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be of little use to describe them, especially as all their original characteristics exist in the old pieces.
The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender, and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a few of them masses of strongly contrastingcolours are placed beside one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh combinations.
MAP OF ASIA MINORMAP OF ASIA MINOR
MAP OF ASIA MINOR
The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian; the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results; for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.
Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals, birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which are less frequently employed by the weavers of anyother country. There are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs, and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.
These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact, the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques; yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and study.
Bergamos.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments, philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed there.