MAP OF TURKESTANMAP OF TURKESTAN
MAP OF TURKESTAN
Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to the influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of Chinese, they are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter. Not improbably this is because Tamerlane had gathered at Samarkand noted artists and artisans from China, whose influence continued long after his death. And as traditional patterns have been transmitted for centuries, there is little doubt that some of themodern rugs, even though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In these pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics.
The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the Central Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman rugs than to any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat’s hair selvage at the sides peculiar to Afghans and Tekkes. On the other hand, many of the patterns both of field and border resemble Persian workmanship; so that placing these rugs in the same group with the Turkoman and Turko-Chinese rugs, which are not made in an adjoining territory, is slightly arbitrary.
Royal Bokharas.—The best known district in Turkestan is the Khanate of Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the lofty Pamir mountains in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus river, on the west. Situated in its northern half and near the centre of a fertile valley is its capital, Bokhara, “The Noble.” Though noted for its cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These and its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days when the great caravans that came from China, India, Persia, and Russia made it one of the great marts of the East.
On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of the Kirghiz steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,33the Afghans who dwell north of the Paropamisus range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the west, came and bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these rugs were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan, Orenburg, or Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place, the term Bokhara was often applied to each of the different classes. Thus we hear of Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and Khiva Bokharas.
Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only arethe best woven, but are made of the finest material; even the warp of many of them is of soft, silky white wool. The old rugs were made in the city and suburbs of Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old and new are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns, one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon. Of these quarters, which are either plain or contain a small triangle of contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite are always white or cream coloured, and the other pair are of some shade of red. Small triangular figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons, as well as small diamond, oval, or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major axis. In the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross. Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs, that careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally placed octagons of both these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures, that are usually of the same design regardless of the shape of the octagon. In large rugs the centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark blue colour.
It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this class of Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven, velvet-like pieces. A few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk; and all have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of lighter red and ivory, that convey an idea of opulence and dignity worthy of a king.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red, with minor quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden.Warp, fine white wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, fine wool, or occasionally silk, clipped short.Border, three stripes divided by smaller coloured lines.Sides, a blue double overcasting.Both ends, a narrow web and short warp fringe.Texture, firm.Weaveat back is of fine grain.Usual length, four to ten feet.Usual width, three fifths to four fifths length.
Plate 53. Turkoman Rug with Katchli PatternPlate 53. Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern
Plate 53. Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern
Princess Bokharas.—The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are woven by the Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate of Bokhara. They are nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by perpendicular and horizontal bands. Because of this pattern they are called “Katchlis,” a word derived from the Armenian language signifying “like a cross.” The bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate with those in part of the border; but not infrequently the designs of the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one, and in a few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure. It is generally believed that the well-known Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field and the border is intended to represent the tree of life, but some native weavers suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance; the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad diagonal lines with serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the mosque. A very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks. One of their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped prayer arch, which is in a panel entirely within their upper border.
Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality, the warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool, and the weave is coarser. Also, the tones of colour are more sombre, and of browner shades; but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the ground, on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and dark blue, are exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for commercial purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red or brown, with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the weft partly hidden.Warp, brown wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool of short or medium length; occasionally some goat’s hair is used.Border, three stripes, separated by narrow lines.Sides, a double overcasting or a double goat’s hair selvage of three cords.Both ends, a web and warp fringe.Texture, stout.Weaveat back is of moderately fine grain.Usual length, four and one half to six feet.Usual width, two thirds to four fifths length.
Tekkes.—A little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost unknown tribe called the “Tekke,” a term which is said to denote a mountain goat, and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men rode over rough mountain sides. About the beginning of the XVIII Century they packed theirkhibitkas,34and after moving southward to escape from the attacks of a more powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the southwestern corner of Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds, whose ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating and cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred thousand. One fourth of them then moved eastward; and after settling on the banks of the Tajand, not far from the Persian town of Saraks, they attacked the inhabitants of Merv and captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful people, they occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu Daria.
Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid, hundreds or even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the passes that looked down into the fertile valleys of Northern Persia. Stealthily creeping through them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash away with young women and children. If pursued, they would stab their captives, and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the deserts and carry away both camels and wares.
Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical Pinde PatternPlate 54. Turkoman Prayer Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical Pindé Pattern
Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical Pindé Pattern
Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the Russians, who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the Caspian and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the Tekkes harassed. At length in January, 1881, came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on the fortress of Geok Teppe, where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and seven thousand women andchildren had taken refuge. With the fall of that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the power of the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose ancestors for countless centuries had roamed the desert, recognising no master, yielded finally to the advance of civilisation.
These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with excellent weave and sterling dyes can still be found. As few of them were designed for mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred years old, and even these are rare. Indeed, any that are now forty years old should possess great interest, as they were woven at a time when the Tekkes were still a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The prayer arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not infrequently there are three arches in the same horizontal panel, which, as a rule, is above the field, but occasionally below it. In a great many of these rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field; and in the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern shown in PlateL, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost invariably in the outer stripe.
There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if the very spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground colours are brightened by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious beauty. A few would seem to speak of the early Zoroastrian faith, for in their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the burning altars of fire worshippers.
The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made for doors of the khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and hemmed, and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in length, by which they were suspended. Other pieces have webs at both ends. Many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing large octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in Royal Bokharas.
Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which they resemble, by their goat’s hair selvage at the sides, by one thread of warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back, and bytheir coarser character. There is, however, a great similarity in the colours, though in the Tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red, brown, or plum, with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen. The rows of knots are slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back.Warp, wool or goat’s hair; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back.Weft, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, or occasionally goat’s hair of short or medium length.Border, three stripes, separated by coloured lines.Sides, a three-cord double goat’s hair selvage.Lower end, a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.Upper end, a braided selvage turned back and hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.Texture, firm.Weaveat back of moderately fine grain.Length, five to eight feet.Usual width, three fifths to four fifths length.
Khivas.—On the west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two hundred miles above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva. Most of the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad’s life or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by innumerable canals, crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as melons, peaches, and pomegranates. A large population, also, inhabits the city of Khiva, which before the building of the Siberian railway, was on one of the direct highways between east and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand camels regularly passed through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to Astrakan in fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as well as its own rugs and manufactured articles.
Although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand. Undoubtedly it was woven in some part of Turkestan that lies between these two cities; yet with the exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese ornamentation. Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of rich deep blue, are six conventionalised butterflies, and near them are four clusters of pomegranates. At each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree of life, which under different forms appears so persistently in the woven fabrics of the East. The delicate drawing of these motives is accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad border of well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and colour is combined with unsolved symbolism.
Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt
COLOUR PLATE IX--SAMARKAND RUG
On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and Bokhara tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and colours; yet they contain important differences. Those made by the Khiva tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect of constant struggles against the rigours of the desert and the fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the north. The wool is also coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer to the inch. Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive of Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft that separate each row ofknots, are noticeable at the back, whereas in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible.
Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the following description of an antique goat’s hair carpet from Khiva by Dr. Birdwood.35“The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each lozenge being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends terminate in a fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made entirely by the nomad women about Khiva, the head worker tracing out the design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving.”
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red, with minor quantities of blue and ivory.Knot, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of knots are but slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.Warp, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.Weft, wool of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool of medium length.Border, generally three stripes.Sides, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is generally of goat’s hair.Both ends, a web, one or more rows of knots and a warp fringe.Texture, stout.Usual length, four and one half to six feet.Usual width, three fifths to three quarters length.
Yomuds.—When, in 1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their homes in the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about one hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of the dreary sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the terrible heat of summer, they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of more favoured spots. Sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border of the Caspian Sea as far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the sandy trackless wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.
Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of colour. The prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon, but is sometimes rose, plum, or dark brown; and the remaining shadescorrespond with the blue, green, brown, and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the ivory ground of the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour than the field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.
There are several distinct types, of which only one is well-known. Its pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser designs show that there has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of Caucasia. Covering the field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that suggest those of the Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In the border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and a geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are usually red and striped, are broad and have a fringe of goat’s hair, sometimes braided into ropelike tassels, but more often hanging loose.
The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent, and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs. Their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes; their border contains the running latch-hook.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and white.Knot, generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back.Warp, coarse wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.Weft, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, three stripes.Sides, either a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a goat’s hair double selvage of three or four cords.Both ends, a broad, reddish brown web through which, as a rule, run coloured lines or several narrow stripes, and a long warp fringe.Texture, stout.Weaveat back is moderately coarse.Usual length, five to twelve feet.Usual width, two thirds to three quarters length.
Beshires.—On the Amu Daria and not far from Afghanistan is a small district from which the rugs known as Beshires now and then find their way to this country. As it is not far from several routes of caravans, these rugs show a relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes. Their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the web crossed by several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish brown, that are usual in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric figures of the Yomuds and some Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a striking character of their own. Not infrequently the field is covered with broad, irregular scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in any other class of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis pattern, which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have simple designs that incline to the geometric; but a few are of fair width and are ornamented with rosettes and conventionalised leaves. In namazliks, which are rarely seen, the prayer arch lies within the field. Almost all of this class found in this country are old rugs; and on account of their rich, harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always pleasing and interesting.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red and brown, with minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back.Warp, generally goat’s hair. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed.Weft, wool or goat’s hair of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, generally three stripes, occasionally only one.Sides, a goat’s hair selvage of two to four cords.Both ends, a wide web, crossed with several coloured stripes.Texture, stout.Weave, coarse.Length, four to twelve feet.Usual width, two fifths to two thirds length.
Afghans.—One of the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known in this country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of thesenames are unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the latter is that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of Khiva, and that they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor are they strictly Afghans, since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu Koosh Mountains northward across the eastern part of the Khanate Bokhara, and are made by the tribesmen of both countries. In fact, they differ considerably from the rugs of Central and Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to those of floral pattern woven about Herat.
Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and Teutonic races have met and blended; and across it have passed the armies of the greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist some of the most untamed races of the East, feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands, or cultivating patches of valleys, through which flow icy streams to form the Amu Daria. Here the rights of hospitality are held sacred, but wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal.
When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people are taken into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs should be strong and firm in texture, bold in design, positive and striking in colour. Most of them are large and almost square in shape, though mats are not uncommon. The traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows, usually three in number, of large octagons, that are almost in contact. Between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs, which consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and contains within its centre an eight-pointed star.
With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble those of Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details are drawn as regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They are invariably divided into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a three-leaf clover. The field contains but few adventitious designs and they are rarely animal, as the Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the most common of these designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and Yomuds, is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel trappings. The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine. The sides havean added selvage of brown goat’s hair; and the ends are finished with reddish brown webs, from which hang loose fringes of dark wool or goat’s hair.
Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of the Salor TribesPlate 55. Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes
Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes
As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours, which however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the field consist of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters of the octagon are of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field. In some pieces this red is blood colour, or nearly crimson, standing out in bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of green, orange, yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug; lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent in the red webs of the ends.
Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in texture than most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine wool and goat’s fleece, as well as richness of tone, that is very attractive. They are exceedingly durable and moderate in price.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally dark red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, yellow, and white.Knot, generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back.Warp, coarse wool or goat’s hair; each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.Weft, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, three stripes.Sides, a goat’s hair double selvage of three or four cords.Both ends, a broad web of reddish brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow stripes, and a long fringe.Texture, stout.Weaveat back is moderately coarse.Usual length, five to twelve feet.Usual width, two thirds to three quarters length.
Samarkands.—A little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan, “Strewer of Gold,” has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis. Forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton; to vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear, peach, and pomegranate; and to gardens of fragrant flowers. Here is Samarkand, “The Mirror of the World.” Few cities as old remain after passingthrough so many vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its gates, the Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane seized and made it the magnificent capital of one third of the known world. His tomb and other remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was fostered here the art, the luxury, and the splendour of the East.
The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward from the city and are often called “Malgarans.” They are not to be compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and mosques of the capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special interest, as in them are combined features derived from both Eastern and Western Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once part of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on one of the great highways of caravan travel between China and Western Asia, the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It appears in the colours that are in strong contrast; in the general pattern that shows little affinity for those of Persian or West Asian rugs; and even in the weave, in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp and pile.
The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder, with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs and border stripes. Or again, the field may be blue, soft brown, gray, or tan, with which the colours of the designs and borders, that may contain red, yellow, and blue, invariably appear in strong contrast.
Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists principally of rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in the centre; and if there be many, one is at each corner. They are usually ornamented with Chinese scrolls or some geometric design, as an eight-pointed star; but dragons, birds, or fishes are not uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers of Persian design, with eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion, and others of larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design in fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is further covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic flower forms. The borders are equally distinctive, and unlike those of Chinese rugs are relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging of uniform colour. One of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating vine; another a continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with frets, the barber-pole design, or a design which by some is regarded as the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the waves. In most pieces warp and weft are loosely woven, and the pile is of a medium grade of wool; but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally red, blue, and yellow.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, five to eight. Each half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.Warp, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other.Weft, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse diameter and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice, between every two rows of knots, and occasionally three times.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, three stripes with a pink edging.Sides, a red or pink overcasting.Lower end, web and warp loops.Upper end, web and warp fringe.Texture, moderately firm.Weaveat back, rather coarse.Length, six to fourteen feet.Usual width, one half to three fifths length.
Kashgars and Yarkands.—Among the foothill plains at the western end of the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar and Yarkand, that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo visited there. Situated in populous and fertile districts, each has been a city of political and industrial importance; but on account of the great divides that separate them from Western Turkestan, Persia, and India, their commerce has been principally with Thibet and China. Thus it has happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics reached Europe and America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet even in the remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the culture of silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different periods they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence.
These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the Chinese Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much nearer to West Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to place them in the Central Asiatic group.
As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing. Octagonal forms, animals, and even mythical creatures are often distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly Chinese character. The narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and fret forms are often similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The colours, which lack the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often light; but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and red which show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting on account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes of this group.
Beluches or Beluchistans.—“When creating the world, the Almighty made Beluchistan out of the refuse” are the words of an old proverb, that refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting rugs of the East. In fact, the thought is not surprising when the desolate character of the country is considered; for a sandy, waterless waste stretches over the greater part, and only in a corner to the northeast and in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water small valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land and farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia, untamed tribes of Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep, goats, and large numbers of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely made looms, bear little resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the Indian weavers to the east or to those of Kirman to the west. Nor are they closely related to the Turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped. In fact, they possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people. To these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been chemically washed by dealers.
Plate 56. Yomud RugPlate 56. Yomud Rug
Plate 56. Yomud Rug
One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are their tones of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage. They are principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with purple cast, and a dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge, particularly when appearing in the webs. Frequently, too, dull tones of green are seen. Contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably some ivory which appears as small detachedfigures in part of the border, or as outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric and represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs. Or they may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with large lozenges, or medallions, all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks. Still others have some crudely drawn flower design, as the Mina Khani, that tells of Persian influences.
A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a large rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and frequently higher than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of three or four stripes. The main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil, though occasionally they are replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern.
Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the rug is still serviceable. They are usually coloured in harmony with the colours of the field, and are marked with embroidered lines or simple designs. No other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen, due to the soft, fine wool of the pile, which in old pieces is short and closely woven, giving a play of colours, and velvety appearance unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of Beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are of rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of very old rugs.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally red, blue, and brown, with minor quantities of white.Knot, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are usually pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.Weft, of coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, and occasionally camel’s hair, of medium length.Border, three stripes.Sides, a heavy goat’s hair selvage of three or four cords.Both ends, a broad embroidered web with warp fringe.Texture, slightly loose.Weaveat back is moderately coarse.Usual length, four and one half to six feet.Usual width, two thirds to three quarters length.
The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more geometric than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in them, though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders of the ends. Even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their identity. Octagonal figures, stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common. In fact, the group as a whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and Chinese groups more than the Persian.
The stripe shown in PlateL, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 250) is one of many found in the rugs known as Royal Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as the small tent-like designs, which may have been derived from the headstalls of horses, are almost always found in it.
A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with the pattern of the field, appears in PlateL, Fig. 2. It represents a continuous series of designs shaped like a Y, that were doubtless derived from forms of trees. More frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated diagonal lines, that originally may have been intended to represent foliage, is seen.
Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes and Khivas is shown in PlateL, Fig. 4. It forcibly suggests the Chinese fret. Sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary stripe.
In PlateL, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently seen in Tekkes, which is interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks similar to those of Caucasian rugs. Without doubt this is only one of the many instances illustrating the migration of designs.
PlateL, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar to Yomuds. The running vine is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks, which are a constant feature of this class.
Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of latch-hooks is shown in PlateL, Fig. 7. Pendent from the vine are other hooks shaped like frets.
Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented in PlateL, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the proportion of length to width is greater; and it is probable that they were copied from a wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen in Beluchistans.
Plate L. Primary and Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic RugsPlate L. Primary and Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs
Plate L. Primary and Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs
PlateL, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically drawn vine found in Beshires.
Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in PlateL, Figs. 10 and 11.
In PlateL, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the most typical and interesting stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands. The first is supposed to represent the sacred mountain of Chinese lore rising out of the waves. The second is a vine with leaves and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.
A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is seen in PlateL, Fig. 14.
In PlateL, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a well-known form of a secondary stripe found in Royal Bokharas.
A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in PlateL, Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines found in other groups.
Stripes of running latch-hooks (PlateK, Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are frequently found in Yomuds, and occasionally in Beluchistans.
In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in Caucasian and Persian rugs, are very frequently used.
The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in PlateL, Fig. 17, is a Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian influence.
In PlateL, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very large number of Afghans and in some Khivas.
Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in PlateL, Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of Persian origin, and the swastikas suggest Chinese origin.
In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small barber-pole stripes are constantly employed.
Legend:KNOT—H = HorizontallyP = PerpendicularlyWARP—g = goat’s haire = each equally prominentd = 1 to the knot depressedh = 1 to the knot doubled underWEFT—g = goat’s hairNo. = No. times crossing bet. two round knotsSIDES—O = overcastingS = selvageLOWER ENDW = webS = SelvageK = Rows knotsL = warp loopsF = fringeUPPER ENDW = webS = selvageK = Rows knotsT = turned back and hemmedF = fringe
[] indicates the less frequent condition.
THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known asDari, which are unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics, that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations. Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared with other kinds of rugs.
The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years, but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as follows: “The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age or accident they are past work; and on their death theypass to their sons, should they have become skilled in their father’s art. Upon the completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased. It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has always been produced.”
After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated. This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ. Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes, and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis; and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining. European companies have established factories where natives are employed making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad. Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence. Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality, representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking; and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European patterns.