Plate M. Medallions in Chinese RugsPlate M. Medallions in Chinese Rugs
Plate M. Medallions in Chinese Rugs
Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of PlateM, represent fret-covered medallions, which also are found in rugs of the same period. The first is probably the oldest pattern; and the last, to judge by the panel surrounding it, was apparently copied from a bronze mirror back.
In PlateM, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in PlateM, Fig. 2, but with the dragons replaced by frets.
A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in PlateM, Fig. 6. It shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons, of which the heads alone betray their origin. Such medallions are found mostly in the earliest rugs.
By comparing Fig. 7 of PlateMwith the preceding, it is apparent that its scrolls had a similar origin, but in this one the dragon heads have entirely disappeared. The design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi rugs.
In PlateM, Fig. 8, is represented a medallion that closely resembles some of the earliest period; but the more accurate drawing and clearer definition of lines shows that it is a later copy. It is found in late Kang-hi pieces.
To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas represented in PlateM, Fig. 9.
Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in Plate M, Fig. 10. The particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about the Yung-ching period; but there is little doubt that similar medallions appeared in older rugs.
In Figs. 11 and 12 of PlateM, are represented two medallions with foliate designs that were largely employed in the early Keen-lung period. A comparison of the first with Fig. 13 of PlateM, shows an interesting step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.
A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in PlateM, Fig. 14, in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands.
Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in PlateM, Fig. 15. Wreath-like borders, such as are seen in this and the preceding one, are found in XVIII and XIX Century pieces.
The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age ofChinese rugs. As was seen to be the case with medallions, the earliest stripes were purely geometric. In others, still very old, appeared forms of conventionalised dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls and these by ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that earlier designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of age is merely contributory.
Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of PlateN(opp. Page 274), represent three old forms, which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the Kang-hi time. The pattern of PlateN, Fig. 4, in which alternate swastikas are reversed, is also very old.
The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in PlateN, Fig. 5. It is found largely in Kang-hi rugs, and if used in more recent fabrics, is often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated here, the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the stripe.
The shading of PlateN, Fig. 6, which is somewhat similar to PlateN, Fig. 4, is characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.
In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of PlateN, are Key and T patterns, which are found in rugs of the Kang-hi and subsequent periods, but rarely in earlier pieces. When employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the XVIII Century they are often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are of great antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised clouds and thunder.
A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in PlateN, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets represent bodies of which conventionalised heads alone betray their origin. The graceful scroll in the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms. This stripe is seen in old Kang-hi rugs.
The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe (PlateN, Fig. 12) that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about the Yung-ching period. It shows the influence of older traditions on which are ingrafted the later inspiration.
Still more interesting is a stripe (PlateN, Fig. 13) seen in what are known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung period. In different parts of the border appear the Buddhist emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law, and knot of destiny, separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral motives.
Plate N. Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese RugsPlate N. Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs
Plate N. Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs
The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and later rugs is shown in PlateN, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, which illustrate three stripes that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese rugs of the last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.
The stripe illustrated in PlateN, Fig. 17, on which are represented halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms, is found in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the XVIII Century, as well as in more subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in which it is found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral conceits that suggest Persian influences.
In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of PlateN, are represented simple stripes found in XVIII Century rugs. The last of these, which is found in Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal trefoil so common in Persian pieces.
The simple dotted stripe (PlateN, Fig. 22) was rarely employed before the middle of the XVIII Century, but has been constantly used since then.
KILIMS have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility, as some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the Egyptians and Babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets. The different links in this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft hanging from one side, first suggested the greater durability and warmth that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts of yarn.
It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different steps in this evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue. The earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags, and consisted of a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced style, induced by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft. As these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern, their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back, giving an appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in Soumaks. The third and most finished style, representing much higher workmanship, was produced by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the same.
Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East. The first not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is frequently substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the only floorcovering, or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets. It often replaces the heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is found among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they receive. The third, which is the more elegant product, is invariably not only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns. In this country, the last two are used principally for portieres and couch coverings; but in the Orient they still serve, as they have from the remotest times, for floor coverings; and because of the custom of removing the shoes when entering a house, last for a great many years.
Though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern; and embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple design, or as is frequently the case in Shirvans, to make more prominent the separate horizontal compartments.
When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs, and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture. There are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch, measured at the front or back; but in pieces of the finest workmanship, there may be as many as fifty, and in the crudest only eight or nine. At the sides of the kilim, the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at the sides of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are braided about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.
The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt is made to copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the rectilinear. If a straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal, or in the direction of the weft, it will often be several inches in length; but a straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length. This is because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to another or to the adjoining field, but are turned back at its defining edges, so that an opening is left, which would impair the strength of the fabric if it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary that the edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned to advantage, as this unevenness or fringing softens linesthat otherwise would be harsh. Defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different colours, which either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour with kilim weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at one end. Even when they completely surround the field, there is generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of side and end. Prayer arches are found in some of the kilims, but their outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs.
The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished, are largely responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads of weft of every hue that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces; yet the colouring never appears the same, since there are lacking the lustre and deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile, in which appears an almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker, because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of pile, the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the devices of latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are large, the effect of the colour is always severe; but when the field is covered with innumerable small figures, it is greatly softened.
As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great age remain. The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained by Dr. M. A. Stein, the archæological explorer, from the ruins near Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an ancient settlement, which was buried by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth centuryanno domini. The weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims, and has about fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish yellow, and red, containing very small geometric designs. With this one exception, so peculiarly preserved, there are probably very few over a century old.
Plate 62. Srinagar RugPlate 62. Srinagar Rug
Plate 62. Srinagar Rug
Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets are woven, very few classes are recognised. Thisis because it is difficult to distinguish between most of them, and such differences as exist are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.
The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed a breadth of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are far superior to all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness of design, quality of material, and character of workmanship. Their patterns, including border, are identical with those of the piled rugs; and the colours, to which at a short distance the small figures of the Herati design give the effect of blending, are the same. As is not the case with other kilims, the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which they are true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble tapestries and are unfit for hard usage.
A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are Shirvans. Their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower bands. Not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures; and through the more narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another peculiarity, occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform colour fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders, but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands; and the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp. The colours are always pronounced, because of lack of shading, and consist mostly of red, blue, and ivory. Yellow and green are also used. These kilims are much heavier than the Sehnas, and also larger, as the average size is about five by nine feet; and some are even seven by twelve feet.
From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a large number of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that the general name of Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are still made there by many of the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman origin, who wander over the Taurus mountains, and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average size is about four and a half byeight feet. In colours and patterns, they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts farther to the east.
A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the Kurds, and dependent on the district in which they are made, is observable in their kilims, as those which come from the Persian border have carefully drawn designs, that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous watershed of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely woven, and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in more artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have large diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others have horizontal bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called Bagdad portieres; in many are wide spaces without designs; but whatever the pattern, there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the web at the end.
In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually classed as Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are used mostly for portieres or curtains, are divided perpendicularly into equal halves, that at times are united by stitches. The tribes that make them also make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches suggesting the Ghiordes design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as “Kis-kilims” or girl’s kilims. These are made with the utmost care, since they are intended as a bride’s gift to her husband; and a sentiment of romance, and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of her accomplishments, contribute to influence the weaver. Sometimes even a lock of hair is added as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.
The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are, accordingly, not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of the largest kilims. Most of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider.
The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known as “Merv Kilims,” since they are woven by Turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert near the old capital of Merv. The brilliant colours found in the products of more Western tribes are entirely wanting, and in their place are the few subdued, rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman weavings. These pieces are stoutly woven, andsince the pattern is represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs are largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A heavy embroidered selvage, from which hang loose threads of warp, often occurs at the ends. These kilims are noted for their durability, and are usually of large size.
In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus river, are woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is not the case with almost all the rugs of India. They are made by the women in their own homes and display an individuality which also is rare in Indian textile fabrics. In a monograph on “Carpet Weaving in the Punjab,” Mr. C. Latimer says: “The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs between them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by local tradition originally copied from the robes of the Pharaohs of Egypt.”
Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs; though they never display high, artistic perception or poetic instinct, nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of art, and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of dignity, possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.
THE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes, almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be remembered:
(a) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns; and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have geometric.
(b) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs of the Asia Minor group.
Plate 63. XVIII Century Chinese RugPlate 63. XVIII Century Chinese Rug
Plate 63. XVIII Century Chinese Rug
(c) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
(d) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen warp.
(e) That about one third of the Persian group have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes of other groups.
(f) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both overcasting and selvage.
(g) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue, and brown.
(h) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
(i) That the few classes of rugs which have very long end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above statements that:
(1) A rug is from Persia or Central Asia,—
If it has a Sehna knot.
(2) A rug is probably Persian,—
If the pattern is distincly floral
If the warp is cotton;
If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled under the other.
(3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor, Caucasia, or Central Asia,—
If the pattern is geometric;
If the sides are selvaged.
(4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or Caucasia,—
If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.
(5) A rug is probably from Caucasia,—
If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.
(6) A rug is probably from Central Asia,—
If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs, and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;
If it has long webs at the ends.
Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another. They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups, depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from consideration.
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It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp; some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses twice between two rows of knots.
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With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as follows:
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Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, “A” includes those that have the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans, Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others; and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In sub-group “B” the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap. The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which are designs of archaically drawnleaves, and have generally the so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of the classes of sub-group “C,” the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven. The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans are the best woven of sub-group “D.” At the back of Luristans each half knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups “E” and “F,” the weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two classes. The Bijars of sub-group “G” are much stouter than the Niris and have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer than those of Bijars. Sub-group “H” contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan, or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah, Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or Sultanabad.
If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend, Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
Plate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung PeriodPlate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period
Plate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period
If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the rug may be a Feraghan.
If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a Persian Kurdistan.
A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap is long.
It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the sides are finished with a selvage.
Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished at once from all others. For instance:
The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of camel’s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the back.
Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle pattern. They have usually the same colour tones,which once seen are not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older and of better colours.
The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once distinguish these pieces from all others.
Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven, and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends. They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds, Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm, texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two, the Mahals are the better grade.
A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs.They can be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the Karadagh.
The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right half of some knots and the left half of others.
The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore, Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft. The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other Oriental rug.
Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field,are almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs, consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed with latch-hooks.
The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device represented inPlate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of grass-green colour than any other rug.
The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in distinguishing Melez rugs.
On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half knot appears very distinct from the other.
A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover, classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances, as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh, Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the Lesghian from the northern part.