MAP OF CAUCASIAMAP OF CAUCASIA
MAP OF CAUCASIA
Daghestans.—In no part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in Daghestan, “the mountain country.” Nor is it surprising that this province should produce distinctive types, when it is considered that it has a length of over two hundred miles; that its topography is diversified by glaciated mountains, barren steppes, and fertile valleys; and that it is occupied by numerous clans, many of whom differ in origin as well as religion. Some of the rugs come from the city of Derbend on the Caspian Sea; some come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others, called Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other parts of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became known as Daghestans.
Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it is often difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which acquired the trade name of Daghestans are different from almost all other Caucasian pieces. This is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea and a nearly impassable mountain range, which render communication with surrounding territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed. Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces spurious colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption of new designs, so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely used.
It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are found many of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The dark, rich reds and blues of the fields, which are brightened by the ivory, light blue, green, and yellow of the small designs, resemble the fine colouring of choice Persian carpets. But the patterns are totally dissimilar; for it is only in a few rare old pieces, in which are copied some designs such as the lotus, or the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any likeness to the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.
The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the short nap and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition. With the exception of conventionalised pears, the three-leaf sprig, which is commonly seen in the field, and the narrow border stripes of carnations, almost all of the figures are geometric; and are so carefully drawn, so closely clustered, that they represent an appearance frequently compared to mosaic work.Even when the patterns represent large medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or are divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or tessellated figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form or other the latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of small designs, the octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and animals, human beings, and the pear are not infrequently seen.
As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan, namazliks as well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception of the unobtrusive arch of the namazlik, which is represented in Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61), there is little difference between them. There is never any panel as in Asia Minor rugs; nor is there a noticeable spandrel, since the space above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the field.
As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms employed; and these, with the exception of the carnation design, are rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe; the serrated line is also employed; and it is not unusual to find next to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are small dotted lines.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and yellow.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their alignment is even and the warp shows at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back; occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the other.Weft, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, clipped short.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, a selvage of two, three, or four cords, or occasionally a weft-overcasting.Both ends, a web, one row of knots or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is also a narrow braided selvage.Texture, moderately firm.Weaveat back is of fine grain.Usual length, five to ten feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Plate 44. Baku RugPlate 44. Baku Rug
Plate 44. Baku Rug
Kabistans.—Within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the southern part of Daghestan have become known in Westernmarkets as Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type that takes the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans are merely a variety of Daghestans. Both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour scheme and patterns, so that many of each class are indistinguishable from one another.
On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs, like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular; while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually connected (PlateO, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered, the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design. Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin represented in PlateJ, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, also some red, ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes.Knotsto inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a double overcasting or selvage.Lower end, a narrow web, not infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops.Upper end, a narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.Texture, moderately firm.Weaveat back is of medium grain.Usual length, five to twelve feet.Usual width, one half to three quarters length.
Plate 45. Shirvan RugPlate 45. Shirvan Rug
Plate 45. Shirvan Rug
Kubas.—Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan, in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to be the residence of a Khan. For a longperiod previous to the treaty of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown, streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish display of large flowersen masse, and not detached from one another or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any other Caucasian rug.
Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft, velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that they are frequently mistaken for one another, and canonly be distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of weave.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, red, and brown, occasionally some green.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back.Warp, fine wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.Weft, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool of medium length.Border, one to three stripes.Sides, a blue double selvage of two or three cords.Both ends, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.Texture, slightly loose.Weaveat back is of moderately fine grain.Usual length, four to nine feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Derbends.—Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea, where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana, and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century “Derbend,” which in their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century; Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that find a market in the city.
Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of moderate length. At the back of these older rugsis sometimes displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much farther to the south.
Plate 46. Soumak RugPlate 46. Soumak Rug
Plate 46. Soumak Rug
In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap, looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat’s hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian. Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which, fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans. Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking in artistic qualities.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.Warp, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.Weft, generally wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread of coarse diameter crosses only once.Pile, wool of medium length.Border, three stripes.Sides, a double selvage of two or three cords, or occasionally a double overcasting.Both endshave a web, frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe.Texture, moderately loose.Weaveat back is of medium grain.Usual length, five to seven feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Lesghians.—On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents, where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire, and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc, eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
Type Characteristics.Colours, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back.Warp, brown wool;one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or doubled under the other.Weft, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool of medium length.Border, usually three stripes.Sides, an added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two, three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.Texture, firm.Weaveat back is of slightly coarse grain.Usual length, five to eight feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Chichis.—On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain; but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring note is eliminated.
Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds, eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead their flocksregularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very few other classes.
Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type generally seen (PlateI, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of Daghestans.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally ivory, blue, and red, with minor quantities of green and brown.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of short or medium length.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords.Both ends, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe.Texture, moderately firm.Weaveat back is of medium grain.Usual length, four and one half to six and one half feet.Usual width, five eighths to three quarters length.
Plate 47. Kazak Prayer RugPlate 47. Kazak Prayer Rug
Plate 47. Kazak Prayer Rug
Tcherkess.—The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by apeople known to the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called “Tcherkesses,” a Tartar term for “cutter of roads” or highwaymen; and they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as “Adighies” or Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar, migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a better understanding of this class.
Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture, boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped figures sometimes called “sun-bursts,” that are often regarded as crude copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally red and tawny yellow, with minor quantities of blue and white.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.Warp, wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.Weft, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as four or six times.Pile, wool of medium length.Border, three stripes.Sides, a two-cord double selvage.Both ends, as a rule have a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally either web or selvage may be omitted.Texture, very firm. Weave at back of medium grain.Usual length, five to ten feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Bakus.—No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians, Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of different religions and different races have been felt here.
The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours, that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black, as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen. Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow, and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent quality of this rare piece.
Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley
COLOUR PLATE VIII--SOUMAK RUG
An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs, which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (PlateO, Fig. 6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also, they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the rug as they do in Sarabends.
At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs, crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs woven within the last century.
The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow, and black.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontallysix to nine; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other.Weft, usually cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, clipped short.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, a weft overcasting or a narrow weft selvage.Both ends, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe.Texture, moderately firm.Weaveat back is of slightly coarse grain.Usual length, six to nine feet.Usual width, one half to two thirds length.
Shirvans.—Between the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races among whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from the same sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more completely under the sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily to the influence of the Persian weavers, as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs than in those of Daghestan. On the other hand, the technique of weave as well as finish of sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the refinement observable in the Daghestans.
The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In them the foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other Caucasian rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment. Sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices; but they are most frequently found in the borders. Other old pieces contain lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the fields of most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions, stars, and diamonds similar to those of Daghestans, although the drawing inclines to greater simplicity of outline and detail; and they have greater diversity of colour, as tones of blue, red, green, and brown in a field of ivory are not unusual.
Plate 48. Kazak RugPlate 48. Kazak Rug
Plate 48. Kazak Rug
The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit. Some of them resemble those found in both Daghestans and Kabistans, but generally the designs are drawn less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly because, as a rule, they are not so closely woven and the nap is not quite so short. Now and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks are seen; and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices.
There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that rarely, if ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat the appearance of pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole field and contains broad incisions at each side, which nearly divide it into three or four rectangular sections. Within each of them are octagonal figures, and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the panel so as to leave small corners to the field. Each part often contains small designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms, eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and other animal or human forms. With slight modifications this pattern is sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (PlateC, Fig. 11, Page 61), but the section at one end is more completely an octagon, and the remainder is an oblong rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the same form of arch that is common in Daghestans.
Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their borders, which have a well balanced harmony of colours. They have seldom less than three, nor more than five stripes, of which the secondary are often as interesting as the primary. The best known is the one with serrated leaf and wine glass, represented in PlateI, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans that it is almost typical of them. If the figures of the field contain latch-hooks, they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe. Such a one appears in PlateI, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian pattern (PlateJ, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally seen. A very much rarer stripe, which is shown in PlateJ, Fig. 8, is only used when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern. Now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal row of pear designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs of carnations (PlateK, Fig. 1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen, but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and colour scheme. On the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in the selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones are not always so rich or harmonious.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, red, and ivory.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the transverse warp does not show at back.Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of short or medium length.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a double selvage, occasionally a double overcasting.Both ends, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe.Texture, slightly loose.Weaveat back is moderately coarse.Usual length, four to six feet.Usual width, one half to four fifths length.
Soumaks.—Seventy miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same distance to the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus begin to descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the last century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing centre of silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take thither their rugs, from which its own weavers often borrow patterns. By a corruption of the name of the city, their fabrics are called Soumaks, though they are more popularly known as Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the back, as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of India.
Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer RugPlate 49. Karabagh Prayer Rug
Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer Rug
It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of pile that make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by themselves; but even apart from these characteristics, they are as distinct a type as any in Caucasia. On the fields of most of them are three or four diamond-shaped medallions, that occupy nearly the full width of the field and extend from one end to the other. Almost without exception they are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal sides to represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from very old Armenian rugs; and it is possiblethat once the crosses had a religious significance, as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of this type were a Christian sect; but the present weavers are mostly Mohammedans. At the centre of the medallions and in the triangular spaces at the sides are flattened octagons, which are generally ornamented with some star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger patterns and surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs, which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic. Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more frequently seen in this class than in any other, as for instance, the knot of destiny (PlateO, Fig. 17, Page 291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like a bird’s claw, which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries ago. Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom entirely lost.
There are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern, and with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones. They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral designs. One recently examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows of innumerable dainty figures, which were evidently the conventionalised forms of small flower bushes. Not a single other design appeared in the field, yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it exceedingly beautiful.
The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to five, are generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow well known Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the running latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has the simple form shown in PlateK, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230); but now and then the more elaborate drawing of the Georgian stripe (PlateJ, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil, which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running vine and rosette, such as the one in PlateK, Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a secondary stripe. The primary stripes, on the other hand, although most dissimilar to those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves, that no one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device.
The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which even in the warp displays a silky character. The dyes are faultless, though the colours never acquire a lustre. Red and blue are largely employed, but they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces; and in both old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other Caucasian rugs.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally red, blue, brown, some yellow, and white.Knot, flat stitch. Knots to inch horizontally eight to fourteen; perpendicularly, six to sixteen.Warp, wool; each thread is equally prominent at the back.Weft, wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots in old rugs, and between every second and third row in modern rugs.Border, two to five stripes.Sides, generally a double selvage of several cords, occasionally an overcasting.Both ends, narrow web, one or more rows of knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage.No nap.Usual length, five and one half to twelve feet.Usual width, one half to three quarters length.
Shemakhas.—Flatly woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha tribes. Some of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the Caucasus a short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme the best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as “Royal Daghestans;” yet they are seldom seen and little known. In fact, they are frequently mistaken for Persian fabrics on account of the subdued richness of their deep reds, blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the patterns which are largely floral.
Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known Georgian pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the secondary stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also resemble the Soumaks in the coloured woollen selvage of the sides, and in the narrow coloured web of “herring-bone” weave and knotted fringe of the ends. In some, the field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures containing conventionalised flowers; in others, it is merely a background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms; and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not frequently found in Caucasian pieces.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue, red, and brown.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden.Warp, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back.Weft, wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.Pile, wool, of medium length.Border, two to three stripes.Sides, a blue selvage of two or three cords.Both ends, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.Texture, slightly firm.Weaveat back is of moderately fine grain.Usual length, four to eight feet.Usual width, two fifths to two thirds length.
Tiflis.—When it is considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the Georgian capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what has been written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference to a type peculiar to this city and district. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced there, and that the old pieces are few and but little known.
Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of their moderately long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz or a Meshed; the colour scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones, such as blue, green, rose, and ivory; the weave of delicate and fine threads is as close as that of old Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to determine the type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft which crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed a brown or dull red, and strung with great exactness; and the knots are tied with care. There is also something distinctive in many of the patterns; for however interesting they may be, precision of drawing is often combined with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for instance, may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part may represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars, occupying the full width of the field; and still another part may be entirely occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining these may be other pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and other strange devices. Likewise, many different colours may be placed in close relation, yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that the effect is not harsh. Somesort of tree-form is not unusual; but on the whole, the designs of both field and border are geometric.
Type Characteristics.Colours, principally blue and red, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and brown.Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.Warp, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.Weft, wool, of fine diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses from three to five times between every two rows of knots.Pile, soft wool of medium length.Border, three to five stripes.Sides, a double overcasting or narrow selvage.Both ends, a web and warp fringe.Texture, firm.Weaveat back is of moderately fine grain.Usual length, six to eleven feet.Usual width, three eighths to two thirds length.
Kutais.—Among a large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen a few pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line both banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses; in the valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of Caucasia, and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would have a striking individuality of their own; but they are little known as a distinct class. In fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks that they are constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly woven, less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices. Moreover, as this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks had settled permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not improbable that some of its patterns were copied by them.