SCENE ON LOGAN RIVER, SOUTH QUEENSLANDSCENE ON LOGAN RIVER, SOUTH QUEENSLAND
SCENE ON LOGAN RIVER, SOUTH QUEENSLAND
In closing, the Hydraulic Engineer reports that the succession of good seasons experienced (years 1890-93), and the abundance of water and grass resulting, has occasioned much inattention to water conservation, and he also expresses regret that financial exigencies have compelled the dispensing with some valued members of his staff. The article is illustrated by diagrams, and the studious reader will peruse it with profit.
In his report for 1st November, 1894, the Hydraulic Engineer recurs to the source of artesian water. He regrets that very little can be added to the previous assumption that it lies in the outcrops of the porous beds of the Lower Cretaceous formation on the western slope of the coast range; and he urges the necessity of accumulating facts relating to the bores already sunk, and complains that some owners neglect to give the department the information sought. He urges that legislation should make the furnishing of statistical matter of this kind compulsory. He doubts whether, in the absence of information as to the precise geological conditions subsisting beneath the surface, a map of Queensland can ever be prepared showing with certainty where artesian water can be found; but much may be done by accumulating accurate information with respect to the sinking of bores, nature of strata passed through, amount and pressure of flow, temperature of water, and depth beneath the surface whence obtained in each case. The map issued by the Geological Department would show the water-bearing areas, which means the formation in which water may be expected to be found; but bores can only be put down with reasonable certainty when the entire western country has been prospected.
The life of an artesian well with a permanent spring, says the report, is limited by the durability of the casing. The corrosive action of some water is much greater than others; but there should be no difficulty in renewing the casing when necessary. It has often been discovered that an interruption of the flow, or its serious diminution, is the result of worn-out casing. So much is this the case that there is still controversy as to whether there is any general diminution in the supply consequent upon continuous waste.
The report then discusses the question of using artesian water for power in the industries. The Hydraulic Engineer points out that of the total horse-power used in the United States at that time about 39·5 per cent. was hydrodynamic. Artesian water, he says, can be applied to driving all kinds of machinery, "from a sewing machine or a cream separator to a saw or flour mill; and for fire-extinguishing it is most excellent." He therefore recommends the employment in Western Queensland of turbines and Pelton wheel motors for sheep-shearing, electric lighting, and other kinds of machinery used there, pointing out that the horse-power available was—At Blackall, 8·04; at Cunnamulla, 41·53; at Charleville, 123·41; and at Thargomindah, 63·51.aHe further recommends the utilisation of the artesian supply for street mains, a suggestion since carried out with great public advantage in several western towns. While Mr. Henderson doubts the utility of artesian water for irrigation, he says that, generally speaking, it is quite as valuable as that from town mains, rivers, and falls for developing power. The aggregate area to date in which precious artesian water has been found in Queensland is 117,000 square miles, and he feels that this area would be rapidly enlarged by exploration by both Government and private borings. The shallowest completed flowing well in Queensland at that date was 60 ft., and the deepest 3,630 ft.; the average depth so far as known to the department was 1,289 ft.
Footnote a:Mr. Henderson notes that these horse-powers have since been very much reduced.
Explaining why the volume flowing from a well does not depend upon the diameter of the "static" pressure of the water, Mr. Henderson says that the flow depends principally upon the relative altitudes of the outcrops of the water-bearing beds, and of the mouth of the bore or well, and upon the character and texture of the porous beds from which the well derives its supply. The static pressure is ascertained by stopping the flow by artificial means, when the pressure generally rises, sometimes quickly, at other times slowly, until it reaches a maximum. But when the well is again opened it will be found that the static pressure has been more or less reduced by friction. This reduced pressure is called the "hydraulic." The hydraulic pressure can never exceed the static pressure; nor can the volume of water flowing from an artesian well be ascertained by its pressure, or the height to which the water may rise over the top of the casing, any more than the pressure can be ascertained by knowing its volume.b
In the same report is announced the striking at Winton, at a depth of 3,235 ft. of a supply amounting to 100,000 gallons a day, at a temperature of 140 degrees. It was determined to continue sinking under a new contract.
Footnote b:See Votes and Proceedings, 1894-5, for Hydraulic Engineer's Report, 1st November, 1894, page 5.
Mr. Henderson again returns to the misuse of water, suggesting that the utility of the artesian supply can easily be tested by intense cultivation of a small area at each bore. He complains that one of Queensland's most valuable assets is not as carefully guarded as it should be. He estimates that the quantity allowed to run uncontrolled and generally misused amounts to 66,000,000 gallons per diem, or 66 per cent. of the estimated total flow in Queensland. He invites attention to a recommendation in a previous report that all underground or artesian water should be declared State property. This would not prevent owners of artesian water taking and using a reasonable supply of water, but all consumption beyond what might be called a "liberal" amount should be paid for, the State receiving the water rate. The experience of America in this matter proved that in some States control by the Government was enforced, while in others the greatest care was exercised to prevent any further granting of subterranean water franchises unless the absolute right of the State was reserved to regulate the consumption. Appended to the report is a copy of a recommendation by a Commission in the State of Colorado for regulating, distributing, and using water. Mr. Henderson thinks the recommendation too severe, but insists that some State control should be exercised.
The same report contains an interesting review of the condition of irrigation enterprise in Queensland, and again insists that scientific stream-gauging is indispensable if surface water is to be made generally available for irrigation purposes.
The report dated 5th October, 1895, recurs to the Hydraulic Engineer's previous estimate that the outcrops of the water-bearing beds of the country covered an area of about 200 square miles. He is glad to learn that Mr. R. L. Jack, Government Geologist, had since worked the matter out, and, while approving of Mr. Henderson's suggestion as to the source of artesian supplies in Queensland, estimated the area as 5,000 square miles, or twenty-five times the Engineer's estimate. This information seems to have allayed Mr. Henderson's dread of the exhaustion of the supply, for he says that the Geologist's figures indicate that "the gathering-ground is larger than can possibly be required for years to come if there is no extensive leakage, of which as yet there is no evidence that I am aware of." He next writes strongly in favour of a comprehensive search for artesian water by the Government, and of Government aid being offered by loan to persons willing to sink bores on Crown lands or even on private property. Such assistance would encourage settlement by leaving the settler in possession for other purposes of money which would otherwise be spent on water provision on his holding, and prove an incalculable benefit to the State by mitigating periodical droughts.
The report then gives statistics relative to artesian bores as follows:—Number of bores, 397; average depth, 1,195 ft. Of these 286 overflow with a total output of 213½ million gallons per diem. Total cost of boring and casing, £860,321, as nearly as could be estimated, "remarkable results for eight years' work, as in 1887 boring in Queensland was in its infancy." With a view to greater accuracy provision for the salaries of two inspectors had been made on the Estimates for the year, in order that uniform records might be secured as to the strata pierced, the flow, the pressure and temperature of the water, amount of rainfall at the outcrop of water-bearing beds, and the alleged diminution of artesian streams. The suggestion is then made that land, the leases carrying water rights, might be made available for settlement in small areas around tanks and bores.
In this report the Hydraulic Engineer is able to announce the success of the Winton bore. At about 3,555 ft. a daily supply of 720,000 gallons of excellent artesian water was struck, and boring being continued to 4,010 ft. without increasing the supply work ceased, the total cost of the bore having been about £7,000. An article on irrigation shows a total irrigated area of 7,641 acres, an increase for the year of 2,240 acres. Included in the area are 2,000 acres of natural grass land and 2,000 acres sown with artificial grasses; also 11½ acres irrigated from artesian wells in the Warrego district. Flood mitigation is also dealt with at length, and a system of flood warnings on the various streams recommended.
The report for 2nd October, 1896, brings records up to date. By map it is shown that not only does the water-bearing country extend over 56 per cent. of the area of Queensland, but also continues into New South Wales and South Australia, and enters Western Australia. It "marks the position of the ancient Cretaceous sea which connected the Gulf of Carpentaria with the Great Australian Bight," and "divided the continent into two islands." "They were," wrote Dr. R. L. Jack, "laid down by this sea; their present position is due to subsequent general upheaval, and they lie directly and unconformably on schists and slates of undetermined age, or on granite or gneiss. Except in Queensland, where they are overlaid here and there by the remains of the Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone formations which have not been removed by denudation, they seem to be covered to a considerable extent by Tertiary rocks. The Desert Sandstone beds lie horizontally but unconformably on those of the Rolling Downs, which dip to the south."a
Footnote a:See "Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New Guinea," by R. L. Jack, F.G.S., Government Geologist, and R. Etheridge, jun,. Government Palaeontologist, New South Wales, page 390.
In the same report the improvement in drilling machinery is discussed, and Queensland manufacturers are congratulated on making American and Canadian machines with improvements which greatly add to their efficiency. Bores in Queensland are generally begun with 10-in. casing, and carried to not lower than 500 ft. Then 8-in., 6-in., and 5-in. casings are used. The necessity of these casings being as perfect as possible is emphasised by the Engineer. The cost of sinking bores by contract, which is almost the universal method, depends upon the facilities offered by the site for the transport of wood and water, but the range then was from 17s. to 24s. per foot for the first 500 ft., and increased with depth until, at 4,000 ft. odd, sinking had cost 55s. per foot. The inspectors appointed the previous year had done good work, though the wet season delayed travelling. Sectional diagrams compiled from the inspectors' reports appear among the appendices.
Then follows an interesting description of surface artesian water known as Elizabeth Springs, in latitude half a degree south of the tropic, and in 140¾ degrees west longitude. The account of these remarkable springs is well worth reading.a
Footnote a:See Votes and Proceedings for 1897 for Hydraulic Engineer's Report, 2nd October, 1896, page 5.
Number of bores in Western Queensland to October, 1896, 454; average depth, 1,168 ft.; feet bored, 530,332 (nearly 100 miles); overflow, 193,000,000 gallons per diem. There were also nineteen deep bores on the coast. The total cost had been £928,081.
Reporting on 2nd August, 1897, the Hydraulic Engineer mentions that the Burketown bore has been carried to a depth of 2,304 ft., with a supply of 155,560 gallons of good water at a pressure of 60 lb. per square inch, and a temperature of 155 degrees, the cost being £4,155. A few months earlier the Normanton bore had struck water at 2,330 ft., for 293,000 gallons a day, with a temperature of 151 degrees, at a total cost of £3,803.
The same report glances at the progress made in artesian water discovery in the southern colonies. Queensland aggregate flows on 30th June, 1897, were estimated at 140,000,000 gallons daily, or 51,135,000,000 gallons annually. This would suffice to cover 294 square miles with water 1 ft. deep, or 100 square miles 35⅓ in. deep. In New South Wales, in 1897, there were thirty-four flowing and twelve pumping bores, yielding 22½ million gallons of water per diem. In Victoria only one or two flowing bores had been put down, the country being generally unfavourable for artesianwater. In South Australia there were in all sixty-two bores, seven being still in progress, but of the total only nineteen wells gave good fresh water, and twenty-two wells salt water. Seeing that artesian water exploration began in the three colonies named before any steps were taken in Queensland, the success here may be regarded as phenomenal, although of course a very considerable amount of capital was lost in sinking abortive bores.
The report dated 15th September, 1898, mentions that the Bando bore sunk for the Lands Department for the accommodation of grazing farm selectors was completed during the year at a depth of 2,081 ft., giving a supply of 2,000,000 gallons daily, and at a cost of £3,289. It was estimated to water 146,000 acres. The Roma bore for the town supply had also been completed at a depth of 1,678 ft., and yielded a controlled supply of 111,000 gallons daily, which sufficed for the wants of the town.
Particulars of thirty-seven bores sunk in the colony to a depth of 3,000 ft. and over are given. Of these eleven had reported flows, either large or small, during the year, three had been abandoned, and nine were still in progress. The yield of 376 bores in the colony was estimated at 214,000,000 gallons a day, the average per bore being over half a million gallons. Besides these, fifty-five sub-artesian wells—those whose water did not rise above the surface—yielded 2½ million gallons a day; and perennial springs gave an ascertained continuous flow of nearly 4,000,000 gallons a day. The report calls attention to a serious diminution in the yield of certain wells, and says that it has been ascertained in some cases that the loss was due to loss of head, and not to any leakage or obstruction in the casing. The Hydraulic Engineer therefore again urges legislation to give the Government control of bore water. As to power, it is mentioned that a small electrical installation had been set up at Thargomindah by the Bulloo Divisional Board, and that the number of lamps of sixteen candle-power that would exhaust the bore power was 150 to 200.
When the report dated 30th August, 1899, was prepared the country was held in the throes of a protracted drought, and the Hydraulic Engineer speaks of compression in his report on the ground of economy. For years past the reports had been becoming increasingly bulky, appendices and maps being supplied on a generous scale. Government expenditure in bore-sinking had now nearly ceased, presumably because private enterprise had already benefited greatly by Government prospecting for water, and the same necessity did not exist for State action as in previous years. The new feature of the departmental year's work is stated to have been the comparative analysis of the height of bore sites and the water potentialsthereat, upon which the iso-potential map, with the full description given in page 56 of the report, is based. By this time the number of bores sunk to a depth of 3,000 ft. and over was fifty, an increase for the year of thirteen, which shows that private enterprise was still active in the search for artesian water. The total number of flowing bores in the colony was given as 440, with a yield of water of nearly 266½ million gallons a day.
The report dated 25th August, 1900, mentions that during the year in the Adavale bore 9,000 gallons of water a day had been struck at 1,494 ft., and although further sinking had been carried to 2,930 ft. there was no increase in the supply. By this time the number of bores sunk to 3,000 ft. and over had increased by nine, or to fifty-nine, while the aggregate flow of artesian water was put at over 321½ million gallons per day.
The report dated 31st August, 1901, was the last to supply the very full information customarily given annually by the department. There was almost universal drought and difficulty. In some parts of the State, however, the drought had broken, so that needful works could be again pushed on. But this was by no means the end of the great drought of 1898-1903, and the appendices and valuable maps which added so greatly to the permanent value of the reports of the department were discontinued, and only a brief report was presented. This is much to be regretted, but retrenchment was enforced by revenue shrinkages and the dislocation temporarily caused by federal union. Happily, however, the information has since been carefully collected, and is now available to complete this sketch of the work done and results achieved since the year 1883, when the department was created under Mr. Henderson's direction. In the 1901 report the success of the Adavale bore is recorded, the depth being 3,398 ft., with a flow of 990,890 gallons per day, and at a total cost of £5,369. The striking of a supply of water in the Dalby bore to the amount of 46,470 gallons an hour at a depth of 1,841 ft. is also mentioned in this report. This success is interesting on account of the site being the furthest easterly where artesian water has been found.
The report for 1902 was cut down to the minimum limit. It was prepared while the country was in the grip of the worst drought ever known, and yet private enterprise was active as ever in bore-sinking, no less than thirty-six flowing wells having been completed during the year. The total number in the State was thus brought up to 563, yielding 375,000,000 gallons a day, the average flow per bore being 666,231 gallons.
The report for 1903 was brief. During the year the number of flowing bores had increased by thirteen, and the aggregate flow by 10,000,000 gallons. The average flow was 669,279 gallons, or 3,048 gallons increase upon the flow for the preceding year.This in the face of the diminution of the flow in many bores cannot be considered unsatisfactory. The entire cost of well-boring in the State to 1903 is set down at £1,463,326, including abortive bores, and heavy sums for carriage of boring plant in the earlier days. It is mentioned in this report that the Whitewood bore, Bimerah, yielding only 70,000 gallons a day, at 5,045 ft., is still the deepest in Queensland. The shallowest is given as at Manfred Downs, at 10 ft., yielding 2,000 gallons a day; and the hottest water at Elderslie No. 2, where from a depth of 4,523 ft. emerge more than 1½ million gallons per diem at a temperature only 10 degrees below boiling point. The greatest static pressure is at the Thargomindah bore, where it is nearly 240 lb. to the square inch.
Since 1902 until this year annual reports at length have not been furnished by the Hydraulic Engineer; but this year the work has been resumed, and advance information supplied in a condensed form.
In the foregoing epitome of the Hydraulic Engineer's reports extending over twenty-five years, no particular mention has been made of the failures inevitable when either the Government or private persons were engaged in deep boring for water exploration. The following particulars show some of the obstacles encountered in tapping the subterranean springs of our arid western country:—
In his report for 1902 the Hydraulic Engineer mentioned that a contract had been entered into with Mr. W. Woodley for the sinking of a bore at Eromanga to a depth of 2,000 ft. for the sum of £1,438, but that work could not be prosecuted in consequence of the prevailing drought in the West. The contract depth was reached on 29th August, 1903, without finding water. A further contract to carry the bore to 3,000 ft. was subsequently entered into, and on 30th June, 1904, at a depth of 2,612 ft., the work was suspended until the arrival of casing, which was delayed by rain. It was not until November, 1904, that the casings reached the bore site, and that work could be resumed. A suspension of work occurred on 4th March following for want of a competent driller. Boring was resumed in August and continued till March, 1906, without success. The only water tapped up to that time was a supply of 10,000 gallons per diem at a depth of 1,640 ft. The casings were allowed to remain in the bore, the gross cost of which had been £4,480. In May, 1906, a new contract with Mr. Woodley, for sinking another bore to a depth of 3,000 ft., was entered into. At 1,660 ft. a supply of 12,000 gallons a day was tapped; but, this being considered insufficient, another contract for deepening the bore to 3,500 ft. was entered into with Mr. Woodley, the additional cost being £1,000. On 9th March, 1908, the depth of 3,500 ft. was reached without any additional supply. Then a contract for sinking a further 500 ft. was entered into. At 3,980 ft. a small flow was tapped which dribbled over the surface, and the 4,000 ft. depth being reached arrangements were made for sinking another 100 ft. At 4,050 ft. a small flow of 110 gallons per hour was struck. At 4,135 ft. the flow increased to 250 gallons per hour. Delays occurred after this,until January, 1909, when boring was resumed, and at 4,270 ft. a flow of 306,234 gallons per diem was struck. The water was then brought under control, and found to have a pressure of 219 lb. per square inch, with a temperature of 198 degrees F. The water was fresh and drinkable, though having a slightly gaseous taste; but this was not noticeable after it had stood exposed to the air for a little time. On completion of the surface fittings the discharge was measured, and the flow ascertained to be 256,825 gallons per diem. The cost had not been adjusted at the date of our information, but it will be understood that a work extending over five years, and then yielding a comparatively small supply, makes bore-sinking a highly speculative industry, even in what the geologists declare to be artesian water-bearing country.
COOKTOWN AND ENDEAVOUR RIVER, NORTH QUEENSLANDCOOKTOWN AND ENDEAVOUR RIVER, NORTH QUEENSLAND
COOKTOWN AND ENDEAVOUR RIVER, NORTH QUEENSLAND
PEARLING FLEETS OFF BADU ISLAND, TORRES STRAITPEARLING FLEETS OFF BADU ISLAND, TORRES STRAIT
PEARLING FLEETS OFF BADU ISLAND, TORRES STRAIT
At the Kynuna bore, work had been suspended at the time of the last annual report at a depth of 2,221 ft., the flow being 807,608 gallons a day. When cased to the bottom the flow was 880,154 gallons per day. It was handed over to the Winton Shire Council, the total cost having been £2,610, half of which was granted as a loan to the council by the Government, and the other half as a free gift.
Another unsuccessful bore was at Windorah, where, under contract, a depth of 4,000 ft. was reached, with no water save an insignificant spring touched at 103 ft. below the surface. The total cost, including casing and supervision, was £7,508.
A bore at the joint expense of the Booringa Shire Council and the Government was started at Mitchell in January, 1908, and on 18th May, at a depth of 1,405 ft., the work was stopped, the supply, equal to 205,000 gallons a day, being considered sufficient. The cost of the bore was £1,935.
Summarising the information supplied in the accompanying tables, Mr. Henderson writes:—"The total continuous yield from 716 bores—the flows from which have been estimated by various persons, not connected with the department, and communicated to me either directly or through the public prints, for the accuracy of which I cannot vouch, and measured under the hydraulic survey which was suspended in 1899 and not yet resumed—is now estimated at 479,268,000 gallons per diem; hence the average flow per bore is 669,369 gallons in the same time.
"These figures do not include the flows from nine sub-artesian wells the flow from which is artificially produced by cutting down the outlet, but which it is understood have since ceased to flow, nor do they include the yield from 215 sub-artesian wells which are pumped more or less regularly during periods of drought, and which are estimated to yield 8,600,000 gallons per day, or an average of 40,000 gallons per well if pumped continuously night and day; but as it is impossible to form a trustworthy estimate of the daily volume raised I have put it down at what I think is approximately true—namely, 1,720,000 gallons.
"I may also mention that owing to the suspension of the departmental hydraulic survey previously mentioned, I have obtained no official data relating to perennial springs. The last data to hand are given in my summarised report for the year 1902."
The following table shows the progress of boring and artesian supplies to end of 1908 [but it must be stated that only part of the data for the years 1907 and 1908 is to hand:—
Footnote a:Pioneering bores sunk to explore and ascertain the artesian possibilities of new country.
For comparison with former years I may mention (writes Mr. Henderson) that the total aggregate number of feet bored in search of artesian water in Queensland up to end of 1908 is estimated, from the best information at hand, at 1,498,700 ft., equal to 283·84 miles. The average depth per bore is 1,113 ft. The total aggregate depth bored is as follows:—
Footnote b:This includes a considerable number of old bores discovered and added to the 1898 year's list.
Footnote c:This includes thirty-four sub-artesian wells and bores in the Dalby district, representing an aggregate of 3,500 ft.
Footnote d:Data collected by Police Department at the beginning of 1907, which include a number of old bores not previously heard of.
Footnote e:Only a small part of data to hand, which was chiefly compiled from newspaper reports. It is a fact well known to this Department that never before was there in any year so much boring done as during the years 1907 and 1908.
The continuous yield of water is estimated at 479,268,000 gallons per diem, equal to 1,763·22 acre feet, or 2·755 square miles of water 1 ft. deep, in the same time.
The average flow of the 716 bores is thus 669,369 gallons per day, and their average depth is 1,575 ft.
The estimated value of 1,346 borings is £1,873,375.
The following is a list, compiled from the latest available information, of the Artesian Wells of the State over 3,000 ft. deep, in order of their depth:—
Footnote a:Abandoned or suspended at 4,001 feet.
Footnote b:Abandoned at 3,942 feet.
Footnote c:In progress at 3,799 feet.
Footnote d:In progress at 3,702 feet.
Footnote e:Abandoned or suspended at 3,510 feet.
Footnote f:In progress at 3,140 feet.