Military Powers of the President.—An eminent American historian,[43]writing of the power exercised by President Lincoln in time of war, said, "It is an interesting fact, that the ruler of a republic which sprang from a resistance to the English king and Parliament should exercise more arbitrary power than any Englishman since Oliver Cromwell, and that many of his acts should be worthy of a Tudor."
President Lincoln, it is true, exercised powers which, if attempted by a weaker man, or at another time, might have proved dangerous to the liberties of the people.[44]
This he did through his interpretation of Clause 1, Section 2.
The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.
Reprieves and Pardons.—The ordinary powers of the President are also important.[45]One of the greatest is the power to grant reprieves and pardons. A reprieve is the temporary suspension of the execution of a sentence. By means of a reprieve the President may gain time to look into the evidence more carefully. Complete release from a sentence is secured by a pardon.[46]
Treaty-Making Power.—Section 2, Clause 2.He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur.
While the power to conclude treaties seems to be without restriction, it is implied that no treaty shall in any way interfere with the authority of the Constitution. The usual steps in the negotiation of treaties are as follows: (1) In time of peace they are conducted at the capital of the nation that begins the negotiation. If this is in Washington, the terms are considered by the Secretary of State and the minister of the other nation; if in a foreign capital, our minister acts under instructions sent him by the Secretary of State. At times, one or more special ministers are sent abroad for the purpose of negotiating a treaty. (2) In time of war, the minister of the nation with which we are at war leaves the United States. The interests of his nation are then intrusted to the minister of some neutral power, and through this minister negotiations for peace are usually begun. (3) The treaty of peace at the close of a war is generally negotiated in some neutral country by special commissioners appointed by the nations at war.
In all cases, the President exercises general control over the negotiation and framing of treaties. After an agreement has been reached, the treaty is sent to the Senate. It is discussed in executive or secret session. This means that the treaty and all matters pertaining to it are kept secret until, by a resolution, the Senate allows the discussion to be made public. The Senate may approve, reject, or modify the terms. If amendments are made, they must be agreed to by the President and by the other nation interested. When a treaty has been finally approved by the officials of both countries, duplicate copies of it are made on parchment. Both of these copies are signed by the chief officers of each country, and the copies are then exchanged. This is called the "exchange of ratification." An official copy of the treaty is thus secured by each nation. The President then publishes the treaty accompanied by a proclamation, in which it is declared to be a part of the law of the land.
If the terms of a treaty call for the payment of money by the United States, the necessary amount can be appropriated only by an Act of Congress. The House of Representatives may refuse to give its sanction to such an appropriation, and may thus prevent the treaty going into effect.
If the terms of a treaty call for the payment of money by the United States, the necessary amount can be appropriated only by an Act of Congress. The House of Representatives may refuse to give its sanction to such an appropriation, and may thus prevent the treaty going into effect.
Power of Appointment.—When it is considered that the President has thenominalpower of appointing over 150,000 persons to office, we can readily see that this comprises one of his chief powers. His right to select office-holders is granted in Section 2, Clause 2.He shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
Vacancies.—Section 2, Clause 3.The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session.
Presidential Appointments.—It would be quite impossible for the President, personally, to oversee all of these appointments, and so a large percentage of them is made by officials in the different departments. There are, besides the ambassadors, consuls, and judges of the Supreme Court, some 7000 so-called Presidential officers, whose appointments must receive the sanction of the Senate. More than one-half of these are postmasters of the first class[47]. Among the most important of these officers are the Cabinet, interstate commerce commissioners, district attorneys, and all military and naval officers whose appointment is not otherwise ordered by law.
Official Patronage.—In making his appointments the President is largely dependent upon the advice of the head of that department under whose direction the officer will come, or upon the recommendation of the representatives and senators of his party from the State in which the office is located. This official patronage, through which political assistants in a State may be rewarded with a Federal office, has become so burdensome that many Congressmen complain of it and desire to be freed from its exactions.Senatorial Courtesy.—There has grown up an almost invariable custom, known as senatorial courtesy. This demands that if the office to be filled is located in a State, the appointment be not confirmed unless it receives the sanction of one or both of the senators of the State concerned, provided they are members of the same political party as the President.Action of the Senate on Nominations.—All of the nominations sent by the President to the Senate are submitted to appropriate committees, as, postmasters to the Post Office Committee, ambassadors to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The report of the committee is considered in secret session, and the nomination is then voted on. If the vote is adverse, the President must make another nomination.
Official Patronage.—In making his appointments the President is largely dependent upon the advice of the head of that department under whose direction the officer will come, or upon the recommendation of the representatives and senators of his party from the State in which the office is located. This official patronage, through which political assistants in a State may be rewarded with a Federal office, has become so burdensome that many Congressmen complain of it and desire to be freed from its exactions.
Senatorial Courtesy.—There has grown up an almost invariable custom, known as senatorial courtesy. This demands that if the office to be filled is located in a State, the appointment be not confirmed unless it receives the sanction of one or both of the senators of the State concerned, provided they are members of the same political party as the President.
Action of the Senate on Nominations.—All of the nominations sent by the President to the Senate are submitted to appropriate committees, as, postmasters to the Post Office Committee, ambassadors to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The report of the committee is considered in secret session, and the nomination is then voted on. If the vote is adverse, the President must make another nomination.
The Spoils System.—During the first forty years of our government there were only seventy-four removals from office. The opinion was general that there were a large number of strictly non-political offices in the departments and elsewhere, the holders of which should be regarded as agents or clerks whose duty it was to assist in carrying on the business of government. Therefore the best results could be secured, it was believed, only as these positions should be filled by persons the most competent, who might hope to retain the office so long as they gave efficient service. But with the coming in of President Jackson the "spoils system" was introduced. This system, in practice, provides that political workers belonging to a victorious party may, as far as possible, receive reward for their services in the shape of some office. "To the victors belong the spoils of the enemy" is the familiar motto of those who have advocated this system. During the first year of President Jackson's administration 2000 officials were deprived of their offices, and friends of the administration were put in their positions. From that time there has been great pressure on every new President similarly to reward his followers.
Civil Service Reform.—While the evils had been pointed out at various times, little was done to remedy the spoils system until Congress, in 1883, passed the Civil Service Law, known as the Pendleton Bill. It provides for a Civil Service Commission of three members, not more than two of whom may belong to the same political party. This commission gives competitive examinations, which are required for testing the fitness of applicants for certain positions in the public service. The number of offices originally included under the act was about 14,000. The President is given the power to direct the further extension of the "classified service," that is, those positions that are to be filled by persons who have passed the best examinations. In 1913 there were some 284,000 classified offices. While much has been accomplished, during the past twenty years, toward reforming civil service appointments, it is to be hoped that a large number of the unclassified offices will, at an early date, be placed on the list to be filled only after examination.[48]The National government may thus further assist in the movement for like reforms already so well begun in some of our States and cities.
Duties of the President.—Section 3.He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.
Presidential Messages.—By means of the annual message sent to Congress at the opening of the session, and special messages on particular occasions, the President is enabled to call attention to the legislative needs of the country. The plan of having a message read in each house by the clerk or secretary was introduced by President Jefferson. Presidents Washington and Adams addressed, in person, Congress assembled in joint session. Various reasons have been alleged for this change. President Jefferson was a poor speaker, and it is said that he regarded the formal address as monarchical. President Wilson read his message before Congress in the special session of April, 1913.
Enforcement of the Laws.—The most important duty of the President is to see that all laws passed by Congress are faithfully executed. Laws are useless unless they are enforced, and it is chiefly for the performance of this task that the Executive was originally created. It is not contemplated that this duty shall be performed by him in person, but through officials who are directly responsible to him. The United States marshals and their deputies exercise a wide influence in seeing that the laws are enforced. They usually act under an order from a United States court, but may, at times, act without such a writ. If necessary, the President may send the army and navy of the United States or call out the militia of the States to overcome any resistance to Federal law.
Each State possesses the power of enforcing its own laws and is of right protected in the exercise of this prerogative. In case of an insurrection, however, the State militia is sent by order of the governor to suppress it. Should they fail to restore order, the legislature, or the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), applies to the President for military aid.[49]If the uprising has interfered in any way with the carrying out of the laws of the nation, the President may, at his discretion, send troops to suppress it without having been asked to do so by the legislature or the governor. There was a notable illustration of this point during the time of the Chicago riots, in July, 1894.President Clevelandvs.The Governor of Illinois.—In addition to destroying property belonging to the railways centering in Chicago, the striking employees prevented the free movement of the trains. Mr. Altgeld, then governor of Illinois, did not provide against these abuses, and President Cleveland ordered the United States troops under General Miles to suppress the rioting. The President, who was severely criticized by Mr. Altgeld, justified his sending the troops on the following grounds: (1) that the processes of the Federal courts could not be executed; (2) that the transportation of the United States mails was obstructed; and (3) that the laws on interstate commerce were not enforced.The United States Supreme Court took the same position as President Cleveland in a case which grew out of these riots. Mr. Justice Brewer, in delivering the opinion of the court, said: "We hold that the government of the United States is one having jurisdiction over every foot of soil within its territory and acting directly upon each citizen; that, while it is a government of enumerated powers, it has within the limits of those powers all the attributes of sovereignty; that to it is committed power over interstate commerce and the transmission of the mails, and that these powers have been assumed and put into practical exercise by the legislation of Congress."
Each State possesses the power of enforcing its own laws and is of right protected in the exercise of this prerogative. In case of an insurrection, however, the State militia is sent by order of the governor to suppress it. Should they fail to restore order, the legislature, or the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), applies to the President for military aid.[49]If the uprising has interfered in any way with the carrying out of the laws of the nation, the President may, at his discretion, send troops to suppress it without having been asked to do so by the legislature or the governor. There was a notable illustration of this point during the time of the Chicago riots, in July, 1894.
President Clevelandvs.The Governor of Illinois.—In addition to destroying property belonging to the railways centering in Chicago, the striking employees prevented the free movement of the trains. Mr. Altgeld, then governor of Illinois, did not provide against these abuses, and President Cleveland ordered the United States troops under General Miles to suppress the rioting. The President, who was severely criticized by Mr. Altgeld, justified his sending the troops on the following grounds: (1) that the processes of the Federal courts could not be executed; (2) that the transportation of the United States mails was obstructed; and (3) that the laws on interstate commerce were not enforced.
The United States Supreme Court took the same position as President Cleveland in a case which grew out of these riots. Mr. Justice Brewer, in delivering the opinion of the court, said: "We hold that the government of the United States is one having jurisdiction over every foot of soil within its territory and acting directly upon each citizen; that, while it is a government of enumerated powers, it has within the limits of those powers all the attributes of sovereignty; that to it is committed power over interstate commerce and the transmission of the mails, and that these powers have been assumed and put into practical exercise by the legislation of Congress."
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES.
1. What have been some of the most important treaties entered into on the part of the United States?
2. For the treaty made at the close of the Spanish-American War, see Rev. of R's, 18: 258, 371, 515, 631; 19: 11, 261, 262, 266, 267.
3. In what ways may a treaty be abrogated? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 140, 141.
4. May a President have many of the privileges of private life? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 177-180.
5. What are some of the official cares of the President? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 162-177.
6. The overworked President. McClure's Mag., 28: 483-492; Rev. of R's, 25: 464-466.
7. Secure a copy of the last report of the Civil Service Commission, and also Manual of Examinations for the Classified Service of the United States, and look up the following:—
a. How many persons are included in the civil service of the United States?
b. What proportion of them is included in the classified service?
c. Does the law of 1883 seem to have brought about satisfactory results?
d. What offices have been included in the extension of the Civil Service Law?
e. What is the nature of the questions asked in the examinations? i
8. The Fifteenth Annual Report of the commission (pp. 443-485) contains an account of the appointments and removals by the various Presidents from 1789 to 1883. Also an account of the growth of civil service reform in the States and cities of the United States, pp. 489-502.
9. May a man be fitted for political preferment and not be competent to pass an adequate examination?
10. For other articles on civil service reform, see(a)The Civil Service and the Merit System, Forum, 27: 705-712.(b)Some Popular Objections to Civil Service Reform, Atl. Mo., 65: 433-444; 671-678.(c)Roosevelt, An Object Lesson in Civil Service Reform, Atl. Mo., 67: 252-257.(d)George William Curtis and Civil Service Reform, Atl. Mo., 75: 15-24.(e)Rice, Improvement of the Civil Service, N. Am. Rev., 161: 601-611.(f)Roosevelt, Present Status of Civil Service Reform, Atl. Mo., 75: 239-246.(g)Roosevelt, Six Years of Civil Service Reform, Scribner's Mag., 18: 238-247.(h)The Purpose of Civil Service Reform, Forum, 30: 608-619.
11. What was the Tenure of Office Act of 1867? Why did it become of great importance? Is it still in force? Wilson, Division and Reunion, 267, 270-271, 297; Harrison, This Country of Ours, 101-103.
12. What were the chief points discussed in the President's last annual message?
Formation of Departments.—The Constitution nowhere mentions the President's Cabinet. It was taken for granted, however, that departments similar to those found in the Cabinet would be formed. The Constitution declares that the President "may require the opinions in writing of the heads of the executive departments," and again, that "Congress may vest the appointment of certain inferior officers in the heads of these departments."
In 1789 the first Congress created the Departments of State, War, and Treasury, also the office of Attorney-General. President Washington's Cabinet consisted of the officials whom he appointed to fill these four positions. The Navy Department was added in 1798. While a Post-Office Department was established in 1794, the Postmaster-General was not made a member of the Cabinet until 1829. In 1849, the Interior Department was created by grouping under it certain duties which had belonged to other departments. The Department of Agriculture was made a Cabinet position in 1889. In 1903 the Department of Commerce and Labor was authorized by an Act of Congress, and in 1913 the Department of Labor was created. Members of the Cabinet receive an annual salary of $12,000.
The President and His Cabinet.—One of the first official acts of a President is to send to the Senate, for its approval, the names of the men whom he desires shall constitute his Cabinet. This is now a mere formality. The President is himself the one most interested in the success of his administration and is of right given complete freedom in selecting his immediate advisers. While the views of the members of the Cabinet usually have weight with the President, he is not obliged to take their advice. Indeed, in some instances the President has carried out a line of action which was against the wishes of the secretary of the department affected.
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE.
The Secretary of State.—The Secretary of State is commonly called the head of the Cabinet. He is first in rank at the Cabinet table, and occupies the seat of dignity at the right of the President. Under the direction of the President he conducts all negotiations relating to the foreign affairs of the nation; carries on the correspondence with our representatives in other countries; receives the representatives of foreign powers accredited to the United States, and presents them to the President. Through him the President communicates with the executives of the different States. He has charge of the treaties made with foreign powers, and negotiates new ones. He has also in his keeping the laws of the United States and the great seal which he affixes to all executive proclamations, commissions, and other official papers. During the year 1909 the department was reorganized in such a manner as to create a division of Latin-American affairs and divisions for Far Eastern, Near Eastern, and Western European affairs.
The Diplomatic Bureau.—The United States, in common with other nations, sends representatives to the foreign capitals. They are the agents through whom the Secretary of State communicates and negotiates with other powers. Such affairs are conducted through the Diplomatic Bureau. The United States has now about thirty-five ambassadors and ministers. Our representatives at the courts of England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria, Mexico, Brazil, Japan, and Turkey are known as ambassadors. The ambassadors to these countries receive a salary of $17,500 each.
The social demands made upon our ambassadors are great, and they are also obliged to provide for their places of residence. The salaries paid are not sufficient to meet these necessary expenses, and are small in comparison with those paid by the European nations to officers of the same rank. Thus, the English ambassador at Washington receives a salary of $32,500. Besides the English, the German, the Japanese, and some other nations have provided houses for their legations.
The social demands made upon our ambassadors are great, and they are also obliged to provide for their places of residence. The salaries paid are not sufficient to meet these necessary expenses, and are small in comparison with those paid by the European nations to officers of the same rank. Thus, the English ambassador at Washington receives a salary of $32,500. Besides the English, the German, the Japanese, and some other nations have provided houses for their legations.
The Consular Bureau.—A consul is sent by the United States to each of the chief cities in the consular districts into which foreign countries are divided by our State Department. These consuls, of whom there are three grades, consuls-generals, consuls, and consular agents, look after the commercial interests of the United States in those districts. They make monthly reports on improvements in agricultural and manufacturing processes. These reports also give information regarding good markets for our products and of the best markets in which to purchase foreign products.[50]
Consuls care for destitute American sailors and protect the interests of our citizens in foreign countries. In some of the non-Christian nations, such as China and Turkey, they also have jurisdiction over all criminal cases in which any American citizen may be a party. The importance of such services to our country is self-evident. The appointment of these officials was formerly secured under party pressure. According to the rule adopted in 1906, all vacancies in the consular service are hereafter to be filled by promotion for ability and efficiency in the service or by appointment of those who have passed the civil service examination.
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.
The Secretary of the Treasury.—The Department of the Treasury is the most extensive and complex of the executive departments. In general, the Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the finances of the nation. He is required to prepare plans for the creation and improvement of the revenues and the public credit and to superintend the collection of the revenue. He gives orders for all moneys drawn from the Treasury in accordance with appropriations made by Congress, and submits an annual report to Congress which contains an estimate of the probable receipts and expenditures of the government.
The Auditors.—It is very important that the accounts of the government should be carefully scrutinized, and one of the six auditors connected with the Treasury Department must pass upon the accounts of every public officer who pays out money. Thus, the Auditor for the Treasury Department examines all accounts of salaries and incidental expenses of the office of the Secretary of the Treasury and all other offices under his immediate direction, such as the Treasurer and Directors of the Mints.The Treasurer.—All the money of the United States is under the care of the Treasurer. He receives and pays it out upon the warrant of the Secretary of the Treasury or a designated assistant, redeems the notes of the National banks, and manages the Independent Treasury System. This system renders the Treasury Department practically independent of the banks of the country. It includes the Treasury at Washington and sub-treasuries, each in charge of an assistant treasurer at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco. While the greater part of the money belonging to the government is found in these places, about two hundred National banks have also been designated as public depositories.The Chief of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.—The Bureau[51]of Engraving and Printing is one of the largest in the department and employs about 1600 people. It has been said that the products of this bureau, in the course of a single year, represent a sum equal in value to all the money in circulation in the United States; for here the engraving of the plates and the printing of all the United States circulating notes, bonds, revenue stamps, and postage stamps are done.
The Auditors.—It is very important that the accounts of the government should be carefully scrutinized, and one of the six auditors connected with the Treasury Department must pass upon the accounts of every public officer who pays out money. Thus, the Auditor for the Treasury Department examines all accounts of salaries and incidental expenses of the office of the Secretary of the Treasury and all other offices under his immediate direction, such as the Treasurer and Directors of the Mints.
The Treasurer.—All the money of the United States is under the care of the Treasurer. He receives and pays it out upon the warrant of the Secretary of the Treasury or a designated assistant, redeems the notes of the National banks, and manages the Independent Treasury System. This system renders the Treasury Department practically independent of the banks of the country. It includes the Treasury at Washington and sub-treasuries, each in charge of an assistant treasurer at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco. While the greater part of the money belonging to the government is found in these places, about two hundred National banks have also been designated as public depositories.
The Chief of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.—The Bureau[51]of Engraving and Printing is one of the largest in the department and employs about 1600 people. It has been said that the products of this bureau, in the course of a single year, represent a sum equal in value to all the money in circulation in the United States; for here the engraving of the plates and the printing of all the United States circulating notes, bonds, revenue stamps, and postage stamps are done.
Other Officers of the Treasury Department.—Among the other leading officials of the Treasury Department are: Comptroller of the Currency, Commissioner of Internal Revenue, General Superintendent of the Life-saving Service, Solicitor of the Treasury, Supervising Surgeon-General, and Supervising Architect.
The Life-Saving Service.—This is one of the most important offices in the Treasury Department. More than 2000 men are employed in the 273 stations, located generally at danger points on the oceans and the Great Lakes. Out of the 6000 lives imperiled in the year 1910 in the disasters on water, only 53 were lost. Of the 1463 vessels of all kinds in distress, 1407 were rendered assistance by life-savers. It has been estimated that over 230,000 lives have been saved through this service since it was founded in 1848.The Solicitor of the Treasury.—The Solicitor of the Treasury is the law officer of the department, and has charge of all prosecutions by the government arising out of the counterfeiting of the government securities, or of the infringement of customs revenue, and of all suits for the collection of moneys due the United States, except those due under the internal revenue laws.The Supervising Surgeon-General.—The Supervising Surgeon-General superintends the twenty-two marine hospitals where our sick sailors are cared for; conducts the quarantine service of the United States, and directs the laboratories for the investigation of the causes of contagious diseases.
The Life-Saving Service.—This is one of the most important offices in the Treasury Department. More than 2000 men are employed in the 273 stations, located generally at danger points on the oceans and the Great Lakes. Out of the 6000 lives imperiled in the year 1910 in the disasters on water, only 53 were lost. Of the 1463 vessels of all kinds in distress, 1407 were rendered assistance by life-savers. It has been estimated that over 230,000 lives have been saved through this service since it was founded in 1848.
The Solicitor of the Treasury.—The Solicitor of the Treasury is the law officer of the department, and has charge of all prosecutions by the government arising out of the counterfeiting of the government securities, or of the infringement of customs revenue, and of all suits for the collection of moneys due the United States, except those due under the internal revenue laws.
The Supervising Surgeon-General.—The Supervising Surgeon-General superintends the twenty-two marine hospitals where our sick sailors are cared for; conducts the quarantine service of the United States, and directs the laboratories for the investigation of the causes of contagious diseases.
THE WAR DEPARTMENT.
The Secretary of War.—The Secretary of War, under the direction of the President, has charge of the military affairs of the government. He supervises all estimates of appropriations for the expenses of the department.[52]He has under his supervision also the military academy at West Point, all National cemeteries, and river and harbor improvement. The chiefs of the eleven bureaus are regular army officers.
The Adjutant-General.—The Adjutant-General issues orders for the muster of troops and for their movement, conducts the correspondence of the department, and keeps the records.The Inspector-General.—The Inspector-General examines and reports on all places where United States troops are stationed; on public works carried on by army officers; and on the military academy and prisons.The Quartermaster-General.—Under direction of the Quartermaster-General the army is transported, clothed, and equipped.The Chief of Ordnance.—Arms are supplied by the Chief of Ordnance. The arms used are manufactured chiefly in the United States arsenals. The arsenals at Springfield, Mass., and Rock Island, Ill., manufacture rifles and carbines; and that at West Troy, N.Y., cannon and mortars.The United States Military Academy.—The United States Military Academy at West Point was founded in 1802. The corps of cadets is made up of one cadet from each of the Congressional districts, one from each of the Territories and the District of Columbia, and one hundred from the United States at large. Prior to the year 1900 there were only ten cadets at large. The act of that year also provided that thirty cadets were to be named by the President directly and the remainder apportioned among the States. They all receive their appointments from the President, but it has become the custom for the representatives and delegates to select (usually after a competitive examination) those from the Congressional districts and the Territories. The cadet must be between seventeen and twenty-two years of age. Each receives $540 a year during the four years of his course. Upon graduation, the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the united States army. In case there are more graduates than vacancies, those in excess are honorably discharged with the payment of one year's salary.
The Adjutant-General.—The Adjutant-General issues orders for the muster of troops and for their movement, conducts the correspondence of the department, and keeps the records.
The Inspector-General.—The Inspector-General examines and reports on all places where United States troops are stationed; on public works carried on by army officers; and on the military academy and prisons.
The Quartermaster-General.—Under direction of the Quartermaster-General the army is transported, clothed, and equipped.
The Chief of Ordnance.—Arms are supplied by the Chief of Ordnance. The arms used are manufactured chiefly in the United States arsenals. The arsenals at Springfield, Mass., and Rock Island, Ill., manufacture rifles and carbines; and that at West Troy, N.Y., cannon and mortars.
The United States Military Academy.—The United States Military Academy at West Point was founded in 1802. The corps of cadets is made up of one cadet from each of the Congressional districts, one from each of the Territories and the District of Columbia, and one hundred from the United States at large. Prior to the year 1900 there were only ten cadets at large. The act of that year also provided that thirty cadets were to be named by the President directly and the remainder apportioned among the States. They all receive their appointments from the President, but it has become the custom for the representatives and delegates to select (usually after a competitive examination) those from the Congressional districts and the Territories. The cadet must be between seventeen and twenty-two years of age. Each receives $540 a year during the four years of his course. Upon graduation, the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the united States army. In case there are more graduates than vacancies, those in excess are honorably discharged with the payment of one year's salary.
THE NAVY DEPARTMENT.
The Secretary of the Navy—The duties of the Secretary of the Navy pertain to the construction, manning, arming, quipping, and employment of war-vessels.[53]
The United States Naval Academy.—The naval academy at Annapolis was established in 1846. One cadet is allowed in the naval academy for each member or delegate of the House of Representatives, one for the District of Columbia, and ten at large. Candidates for admission, at the time of their examination, must be between the ages of fifteen and twenty years. The nomination of a candidate to fill a vacancy is made upon recommendation of a representative or delegate if made before July 1; but if no recommendation be made by that time, the Secretary of the Navy fills the vacancy by appointing an actual resident of the district in which the vacancy exists. The President selects the candidates at large and the cadet for the District of Columbia. At the conclusion of the six years' course, two of which are spent at sea, the graduates are assigned in order of merit to the vacancies that may have occurred in the lower grades of the line of the navy and of the marine corps. Cadets who are not assigned to service after graduation are honorably discharged and are given $500, the amount they have received each year of their course at the academy.
THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.
The Attorney-General.—The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and of the heads of the departments. He supervises the work of all the United States district attorneys and marshals, and is assisted by the Solicitor-General. Unless otherwise directed, all cases before the Supreme Court and the Court of Claims in which the United States is a party are argued by the Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General.
THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT.
The Postmaster-General.—The Postmaster-General is at the head of this department. He appoints all of the officers of the department with the exception of the four assistant postmasters-general and postmasters of the first class, whose appointments are made by the President with the consent of the Senate. The Postmaster-General may, with the consent of the President, let contracts and make postal treaties with foreign governments.
The Postal Union.—Since 1891 the United States has been a member of the Universal Postal Union. By this union over fifty distinct powers became parties to an agreement by which uniform rates of postage were agreed upon and every facility for carrying mails in each country was extended to all the others.
The Postal Union.—Since 1891 the United States has been a member of the Universal Postal Union. By this union over fifty distinct powers became parties to an agreement by which uniform rates of postage were agreed upon and every facility for carrying mails in each country was extended to all the others.
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.
The Secretary of the Interior.—The Interior Department, under the supervision of the Secretary of the Interior, is one of the most complex and important of the departments. There are two assistant secretaries in the department, while at the head of the other offices are six commissioners and two directors.
The Commissioner of the General Land Office.—The Commissioner of the General Land Office has charge of all the public lands of the government, and supervises the surveys, sales, and issuing of titles to this property.The Commissioner of Education.—The Commissioner of Education is the chief of the Bureau of Education. This bureau has charge of the collection of facts and statistics relating to the educational systems and to progress along educational lines in the several States and Territories, and also in foreign countries. The reports issued by the bureau are of great value to those interested in education. The commissioner has advisory power only, except in Alaska. Here he directs the management of the schools.The Commissioner of Pensions.—The Commissioner of Pensions supervises the examination and adjustment of all claims arising under the laws of Congress granting bounty land or pensions on account of services in the army or navy during the time of war. That our government has not been ungrateful may be gathered from the report of the commissioner for 1913. There were in that year 921,000 pensioners, to whom were paid approximately $180,000,000, or an amount equal to about one-fifth of the total revenues of the country.The Commissioner of Indian Affairs.—Prior to 1871 the Indian tribes were treated as independent nations by the United States, but by a law of that year the general government was made the guardian of their interests. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs exercises a protecting care over these "wards" by directing the work of the Indian agents and of the superintendents of Indian schools.There are some 300,000 Indians on the 150 reservations which are in the various States and Territories.[54]The lands of these reservations are held in common; that is, the ownership is tribal rather than individual. It is the policy of the government, however, to bring about the allotment of lands "in severally," and thus to encourage the Indians to adopt an agricultural life. The Indians are only partially self-supporting. Some tribes derive an income from funds which are the proceeds derived from the sales and cessions of their lands. The National government holds this money in trust for them, and, by direct appropriation, supplies the money, food, and clothing necessary to complete their support. The appropriation for the Indians in 1912 was $9,854,000. Over one-fourth of this sum was spent for their education in Indian schools, numbering about 300, which are under the direct control of the department.The Director of the Geological Survey.—The Director of the Geological Survey collects much valuable information through the examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and mineral products of the United States. He has charge, also, of the survey of the forest reserves.
The Commissioner of the General Land Office.—The Commissioner of the General Land Office has charge of all the public lands of the government, and supervises the surveys, sales, and issuing of titles to this property.
The Commissioner of Education.—The Commissioner of Education is the chief of the Bureau of Education. This bureau has charge of the collection of facts and statistics relating to the educational systems and to progress along educational lines in the several States and Territories, and also in foreign countries. The reports issued by the bureau are of great value to those interested in education. The commissioner has advisory power only, except in Alaska. Here he directs the management of the schools.
The Commissioner of Pensions.—The Commissioner of Pensions supervises the examination and adjustment of all claims arising under the laws of Congress granting bounty land or pensions on account of services in the army or navy during the time of war. That our government has not been ungrateful may be gathered from the report of the commissioner for 1913. There were in that year 921,000 pensioners, to whom were paid approximately $180,000,000, or an amount equal to about one-fifth of the total revenues of the country.
The Commissioner of Indian Affairs.—Prior to 1871 the Indian tribes were treated as independent nations by the United States, but by a law of that year the general government was made the guardian of their interests. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs exercises a protecting care over these "wards" by directing the work of the Indian agents and of the superintendents of Indian schools.
There are some 300,000 Indians on the 150 reservations which are in the various States and Territories.[54]The lands of these reservations are held in common; that is, the ownership is tribal rather than individual. It is the policy of the government, however, to bring about the allotment of lands "in severally," and thus to encourage the Indians to adopt an agricultural life. The Indians are only partially self-supporting. Some tribes derive an income from funds which are the proceeds derived from the sales and cessions of their lands. The National government holds this money in trust for them, and, by direct appropriation, supplies the money, food, and clothing necessary to complete their support. The appropriation for the Indians in 1912 was $9,854,000. Over one-fourth of this sum was spent for their education in Indian schools, numbering about 300, which are under the direct control of the department.
The Director of the Geological Survey.—The Director of the Geological Survey collects much valuable information through the examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and mineral products of the United States. He has charge, also, of the survey of the forest reserves.
THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The Secretary of Agriculture.—The duties of the Secretary of Agriculture are, "To acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with agriculture in the most comprehensive sense of that word." The activities of the department are along many lines, as indicated by the names of the bureaus and divisions.
Bureau of Animal Industry.—Continuous advancement is being made by the government toward placing the agricultural pursuits upon a more scientific basis. One of its most important services is performed in the Bureau of Animal Industry, which inspects the greater part of the meat products exported to European countries. The law providing for this inspection was necessary because of the claim in European markets that diseased meats were shipped from the United States. An inspection is also provided for live animals intended for exportation and for animals imported. Much scientific work is also devoted to a study of the various diseases of animals.The Division of Seeds.—Over $100,000 are expended each year by the Division of Seeds in the purchase of "rare and valuable" seeds, bulbs, and plants. These are distributed free throughout the country for the purpose of fostering the introduction of new and more valuable crops.Public Road Inquiries.—Another important interest is carried on by the Office of Public Road Inquiries. Here experiments are made with regard to the best system of road-making and the best materials to be used for that purpose.Weather Bureau.—Through the Weather Bureau daily forecasts and warning of storms are sent to over 50,000 different points, and storm signals are displayed at 300 places on our coasts. By its operation, millions of dollars are saved each year to the agricultural and maritime interests of the country. A recent decree of the Post-office Department renders the reports of the bureau of still greater service. Slips of paper having the storm, frost, or other warnings printed on them are distributed by the rural mail carriers at the various houses in the districts affected.
Bureau of Animal Industry.—Continuous advancement is being made by the government toward placing the agricultural pursuits upon a more scientific basis. One of its most important services is performed in the Bureau of Animal Industry, which inspects the greater part of the meat products exported to European countries. The law providing for this inspection was necessary because of the claim in European markets that diseased meats were shipped from the United States. An inspection is also provided for live animals intended for exportation and for animals imported. Much scientific work is also devoted to a study of the various diseases of animals.
The Division of Seeds.—Over $100,000 are expended each year by the Division of Seeds in the purchase of "rare and valuable" seeds, bulbs, and plants. These are distributed free throughout the country for the purpose of fostering the introduction of new and more valuable crops.
Public Road Inquiries.—Another important interest is carried on by the Office of Public Road Inquiries. Here experiments are made with regard to the best system of road-making and the best materials to be used for that purpose.
Weather Bureau.—Through the Weather Bureau daily forecasts and warning of storms are sent to over 50,000 different points, and storm signals are displayed at 300 places on our coasts. By its operation, millions of dollars are saved each year to the agricultural and maritime interests of the country. A recent decree of the Post-office Department renders the reports of the bureau of still greater service. Slips of paper having the storm, frost, or other warnings printed on them are distributed by the rural mail carriers at the various houses in the districts affected.
THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.
Nature of the Department.—Because of the nature of the subjects assigned to this new department, it has rapidly become one of the most important of the departments. Among the duties of the Secretary of Commerce are these: to promote the commerce and the mining, manufacturing, shipping, fishery, and transportation interests of the United States. The President is given the power to transfer to the department those bureaus in other departments which are engaged in scientific or statistical work, the Interstate Commerce Commission and the scientific divisions of the Agricultural Department being excepted. The offices which have been transferred are as follows: the Bureau of Statistics; Census Bureau; Bureau of Standards of Weights and Measures; Bureau of Navigation; the Steamboat Inspection Service; Bureau of Fisheries; Coast and Geodetic Survey and Light-house Board. The Bureau of Corporations was created for the department. The Commissioner of Corporations is expected to investigate the organization, conduct, and management of the business of corporations and other combinations engaged in interstate or foreign commerce, except such carriers as may be subject to the interstate commerce act.
The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics.—The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes the annual statistics on commerce. These reports are of such a character that they are invaluable to the President in the preparation of his messages; and they are used extensively by the heads of departments, members of Congress, and the public. Tariff laws, special legislation for particular industries, and all international trade treaties are also based on these compilations. The greatest demand is for the Annual Statistical Abstract, which presents in a condensed form the history of the commerce of the United States for a number of preceding years.The Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.—This officer superintends the survey of the coasts and rivers of the United States. He has charge of the publication of charts and sailing directions which are of inestimable value to mariners.The Light-House Board.—The Light-house Board has charge of the light-houses, of which 1199 had been established previous to the year 1899, besides the light vessels and beacons used for the protection of navigation.
The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics.—The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes the annual statistics on commerce. These reports are of such a character that they are invaluable to the President in the preparation of his messages; and they are used extensively by the heads of departments, members of Congress, and the public. Tariff laws, special legislation for particular industries, and all international trade treaties are also based on these compilations. The greatest demand is for the Annual Statistical Abstract, which presents in a condensed form the history of the commerce of the United States for a number of preceding years.
The Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.—This officer superintends the survey of the coasts and rivers of the United States. He has charge of the publication of charts and sailing directions which are of inestimable value to mariners.
The Light-House Board.—The Light-house Board has charge of the light-houses, of which 1199 had been established previous to the year 1899, besides the light vessels and beacons used for the protection of navigation.
THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
On March 4, 1913, the bill was signed by the President which created the Department of Labor. It is evidence of the spirit manifested by the Americans to make their government serve the cause of human conservation. Besides the Bureau of Information, which was created for the department, there were transferred from other departments the Bureau of Immigration[55]and the Children's Bureau. The Division of Naturalization was made a bureau, and the Bureau of Labor was constituted the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES.
1. Does the President select the members of his Cabinet from among former members of Congress? Would this be desirable?
2. Have the members of the Cabinet ever been allowed to appear before Congress in the interests of their own departments? Would this be desirable? Walker, The Making of the Nation, 92; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, Chapter 9; Atl. Mo., 65:771-772.
3. Who are now the heads of the executive departments? Were they prominent in National affairs before they were selected for these positions?
4. In 1901 a bill was introduced in the House of Representatives which provided for an increase of the annual salary of the Vice-President to $25,000, and that of each member of the Cabinet to $15,000. What reasons can you give for or against such a change?
5. What was the history of the State Department prior to 1789? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 182-187.
6. Give a list of the Presidents who have been Secretaries of State. How do you account for this policy in the first years of our government, and not at a later time? Name some of the other prominent Secretaries of State.
7. Who are our ambassadors? Can you give the name of any foreign ambassadors in Washington? See Congressional Directory.
8. The methods by which our ministers are selected, take possession of their offices, and are presented at foreign courts, are described in Curtis, The United States and Foreign Powers, 15-21.
9. The duties of ministers. Curtis, The United States and Foreign Powers, 22-26.
10. Are our ambassadors given adequate salaries? Curtis, The United States and Foreign Powers, 13, 14.
11. From a consular report learn what the duties of a consul are? Curtis, The United States and Foreign Powers, 30-33.
12. For an account of our consular service, a comparison with that of other nations, and a consideration of some of the weaknesses in our system, see Curtis, The United States and Foreign Powers, 28-30.
13. A business man and the consular service. Century Mag., 60: 268-271.
14. Abuses in our consular system arising through appointment. Atl Mo., 85:455-466, and 669-683.
15. A plea for consular inspection. Forum, 30:28-34.
16. What is the great seal of the United States, and what is its use? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 199-200.
17. What is the particular work of the Marine Department? of the Steamboat Inspection Service? of the Marine Hospital? Lyman J. Gage, Organization of the Treasury Department, Cosmopolitan, 25:355-365.
18. What is the work of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing? Spofford, The Government as a Great Publisher, Forum, 19:338-349.
19. What is the extent of our merchant marine? Should it be increased? Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1900, 437-450.
20. From the appendix to the last Finance Report get the chief points connected with the work of the following officials: Treasurer, Chief of the Secret Service Division. A good description of the Treasury Department is given in Scribner's Mag., 33:400-411.
21. From the last report of the Bureau of Statistics find answers for the following: The expenditures of the government in the different departments; value of merchandise imported and exported; amounts of corn, wheat, cotton, wool, and iron produced, imported, and exported; the chief nationalities of immigrants, and comparison of the total number with previous years.
22. Are our coasts well defended? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 225.
23. Describe the work of the President, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, and of the other Cabinet officers at the outbreak of war. Cosmop., 25:255-264.
24. For illustrated articles on education at West Point and Annapolis, see Outlook, 59:825-837, 839-849.
25. Comparison of our pension system with that of other nations. Forum, 33:346-348.
26. Defects in our pension system. Forum, 31:670-680.
27. Changing character of the immigration to the United States. Rev. of R's, 24:723, 724.
28. Why the Chinese should be excluded. Forum, 33:53-59.
29. Why the Chinese should be admitted. Forum, 33:50-68.
30. Influence of the allotment of land on the Indian. Forum, 34:466-480.
31. Results of the work of experiment stations. Scribner's Mag., 31:643-660.
32. For accounts of the new Congressional Library, see Century Mag., 53:682-694; 694-711; Atl. Mo., 85:145-158; Cosmop., 23:10-20.
33. What is the special value of the work of the Bureau of American Republics? Forum, 30:21-27.
For other questions and references on the topics in this chapter, consult Government in State and Nation, 259, 260.