Chapter 14

FIG. 48.—1, ROCK SNAKE (Python molurus); 2, SPECTACLED SNAKE (Cobra de Capello); 3, BOA CONSTRICTOR.

This includes the Serpents, Boas, and Pythons. These creatures are peculiar from their long and flexible form, and the absence of legs. They move by a sinuous winding action, and when about to seize their prey, make a sudden dart with great rapidity. They are covered with regular scales, and mottled with different colours; some, as the Adder and Rattle-snake, are veryvenomous, the poison is contained in small glands connected with the poison-fangs, which are two long pointed teeth, having a groove or small canal leading from the side of the tooth to the poison-bag, upon which, when they bite, they press, and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh. These poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited, but are drawn up by muscles, when they are about to spring on anything. It is a common mistake to think that Serpents have a "sting," arising from their having a thin, long forked tongue, which they protrude and retract with great rapidity, and which hasbeen mistaken for a sting; the greater number of Snakes are not at all venomous. Serpents have no teeth fit for eating with, but they are used to hold their prey, while they swallow it, and they serve admirably for this purpose, as each tooth turns backwards. These creatures have mouths and throats capable of enormous distension (the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper one), so that they can swallow their food whole, which they always do; a Frog or Toad is often swallowed by the common Snake, which is quite disfigured by it when in its stomach. The Pythons and Boas (fig. 48) are the largest of this class, they kill their prey by coiling round it, and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated and almost crushed, when it is swallowed; these great creatures will grow to the length of 30 or 40 feet, and are capable of swallowing considerable quadrupeds, as Hares, Goats, Deer, &c.; after having their food, they lie torpid for several days. All Serpents lay eggs, and the Pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them; the Boa-constrictors are inhabitants of America, the Pythons of the Old World.

3.Sauria(Lizards).

The Sauria include the Crocodiles, Alligators, Skinks, Geckos, Iguanas, and Lizards; they are carnivorous, the smaller ones feeding on insects, and the larger members on whatever they can catch. They have four legs, and are covered with hard rough scales running in ridges on their backs, they have large strong tails, and their jaws are furnished with sharp teeth. The Alligator is found in great numbers in the Mississippi, and is a most formidable creature, attacking any who may venture into the water. In winter they bury themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state, they are from 15 to 20 feet long. The Crocodile is a native of Africa and the West Indies, there are many found in the Nile, it is larger than the Alligator, reaching often to 30 feet. Dr. Baird gives the following account of the Alligators and Crocodiles:—

FIG. 49.—1, CROCODILE (Crocodilus vulgaris);2, ALLIGATOR (Alligator lucius); 3, LIZARDS.

"The Alligator (Alligator lucius, fig. 49), a native of North America and abundant in the Mississippi, is a formidable and ferocious creature, prodigiously strong, and sometimes reaching the length of 18 feet. It is provided with numerous sharp teeth, long tenacious claws, and a powerful tail, a single blow of which is capable of overturning a canoe. It chiefly preys by night, assembling in large numbers, besetting the mouth of someretired creek, into which they have previously driven the fish, and bellowing so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile. It is said to attack men and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers, and to be more fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family. In Winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and marshes which it inhabits, and continues in a torpid state till Spring.

"The true Crocodiles are natives of Africa, the West Indies, and America; and the best known species is the Nilotic Crocodile (Crocodilus vulgaris, fig. 49). This animal is a native of the Senegal river, of the Niger, and other rivers of Africa, but more particularly of the Nile in Egypt, where it attains the length of about 30 feet. The Crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, by whom it was known under the name of 'Champsa.' The Crocodiles are exclusively carnivorous, and are ferocious animals. Their numbers are, however, kept down by the enemies which surround them. For the adults, few animals could be their match, but the little Ichneumon or 'Mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in the sand; and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their shell, and before they are able to reach the shore."

4.Testudinata(having a shield).

The Testudinata include the Tortoise, and Turtle kind. They are remarkable for their horny covering (carapace) which forms a sort of shell, out of openings in which, their head, tail, and legs protrude; they have short feet, covered with scales, and no teeth, but the edges of the maxillary bones are sharp, like the edge of a knife, and they bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease. Some of this class (the Turtles) are residents of the water, and grow to a great size, weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds, and measuring seven or eight feet long. Others are muchesteemed as food, especially the green Turtle. Dr. Baird, in his Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences, under the article "Chelonia," gives a good description of these creatures, from which the following is extracted:—

FIG. 50.—TURTLE (Chelonia viridis).

"The Green Turtle (Chelonia viridis, or midas, fig. 50) is five or six feet long, and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds. It is principally found in the Atlantic Ocean, and is often met with seven or eight hundred leagues from land. They are easily caught when asleep on the surface of the water, to which they come to breathe. In the West Indies, the Bahama Islands, and the Island of Ascension, the capture of Turtles gives employment to many people, and affords food for thousands.

"The Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretha imbricata) is a smaller species, scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight, and is a native of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The flesh is not good, but the shells, which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each other at their extremities, in the manner of tiles on the roof of a building, are of great importance as an article of commerce, and are much superior to that of any other species. It is extensively used in themanufacture of combs, snuff-boxes, &c., also for inlaying, and other ornamental work.

FIG. 51.—TORTOISE (Testudo sulcata).

"In the family of land Tortoises (fig. 51), the feet are club-shaped, and their habits are terrestrial. The shell is very solid, thick, ovate, and (in the adult state) covered with horny concentrically-grooved shields, marked with a permanent areola. They have a short thick tail, are very slow in their motion, and live upon vegetables and roots. Most of the species are natives of the warm regions of the globe, but those that live in colder regions burrow and sleep during the winter. They are quiet, inoffensive animals, extremely tenacious of life, and remarkable for longevity. Individuals are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred years.

"The common Tortoise, or Taragua (Testudo Græca), is a native of the south of Europe, and almost all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean; it is found in the islands of the Archipelago, Corsica, Sardinia, and in Africa, but is thought to be more common in Greece than elsewhere. It is from six to eight inches long, and weighs about forty-eight ounces. This species is often brought to this country and kept in gardens. One was brought to the Archiepiscopal garden at Lambeth, in the time of Laud, in 1633, where it lived till 1753, owing its death then, more to neglect than the effects of age."

FIG. 52.—1, CONDOR (Sarcoramphus gryphus); 2, OSTRICH (Struthio camelus); 3, KIWI-KIWI (Apteryx).

The third class of the Vertebrata, comprises the "Birds," or those whose young are not born alive, but in the form of eggs; who have warm blood, and breathe by lungs, the air-cells of which communicate with the hollow shafts of the bones, (these are full of air instead of marrow), this gives them lightness, and serves as a reservoir of air while flying; they have two anterior extremities so modified as to form wings, and a heart with four cavities; most of them have the power of flying through the air, and some to a very great height, as the "Condor" (fig. 52), while in others the wings are rudimentary and only assist them in running, asin the Ostrich, (fig. 52) Cassowary, Penguin, &c., while in the "Apteryx" (fig. 52) they are quite absent.

Birds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as feathers; these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging branches, some of which have others branching from them with a serrated surface, giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown in the feathers of the Humming Bird. Birds are furnished with beaks of almost every form, to suit their method of feeding, &c., and likewise feet, sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons, at others, feet suitable to climb with, and again in some they are webbed between the toes, so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity.

Birds are divided into five orders, as follows:—

1.Raptores(Preying) Eagle, Owl, &c.2.Insessores(Perching), divided into 4 tribes, viz:—1. Dentirostres (Tooth bill) Thrush, Butcher-bird.2. Conirostres (Cone bill) Raven, Crow, Finch.3. Scansores (Climbing) Parrot, Wood-pecker.4. Fissirostres (Split bill) King Fisher, Goat-sucker.3.Rasores(Scraping) Poultry, Pheasants, &c.4.Grallatores(Wading) Heron, Crane, &c.5.Natatores(Swimming) Goose, Duck, &c.

1. TheRaptores, as the Eagles and Falcons, are furnished with hooked beaks and strong sharp talons (fig. 53), they prey upon all small animals, as birds of less strength, rabbits, &c., and some of them upon fish, as the Osprey, others feed upon dead flesh and offal, as the Vultures, and are very useful creatures in hot countries, where they are generally respected, they hover about the towns, feeding upon almost everything capable of being swallowed; it is not certain whether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight (both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection), but it is certain that in the desert, when any animal dies, these birds soon make their appearance, although a few minutes before not one could be seen for miles around. The Owls are nocturnal, their plumage is downy, and their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards, the pupils close, similarly to a cat's eye, and their vision, like the cats (their companionsamong the Mammalia) is extremely sensitive, so that the expression "as blind as an Owl," has no more sense in it than "as blind as a Cat" would have; they feed upon rats, mice, insects, &c.

BEAK AND TALONS OF EAGLEFIG. 53.—BEAK AND TALONS OF EAGLE.

FIG. 53.—BEAK AND TALONS OF EAGLE.

2. TheInessoresinclude some that live by catching insects in the air while they fly, as the Swallows (fig. 54); these are furnished with great powers of flight and rapidity of movement; others (the Scansores) which climb and hold by the branches of trees, feeding upon nuts and fruit, as the Parrot; others live upon insects, but seek them in the crevices of old trees and other similar places, as the Woodpeckers (fig. 54). Some live entirely upon fish (King-fishers), which they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live. This order includes all the singing birds, and by far the greater number of birds of passage; this propensity to migrate is one of the most wonderful of all the instincts of Birds, the Swallowleaves England in the Autumn to take up its abode for the Winter in Africa, or the Islands of the Archipelago, and returns again in the Spring, year after year, to the same nest; these journeys are accomplished at the rate of 40 or 50 miles an hour. Pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of returning home from almost any distance, appearing to know by instinct the right direction; as, after a turn or two, they take a straight course to their destination.

FIG. 54.—1, SWALLOW (Hirundo rustica); 2, WOODPECKER (Picus viridis).

FIG. 55.—1, DORKING FOWLS (Gallus Domesticus); 2, PHEASANTS (Phasianus colchicus)

3. TheRasoresinclude the common Fowl (fig. 55), Pheasant (fig. 55), Partridge, Turkey, &c.; they feed principally on grain, but occasionally on insects and worms, which they scrape up with their feet; they live chiefly upon the ground, on which they build their nests, but generally roost on trees. Most of this order supply excellent food, the Turkey is famous as a Christmas dish, and is often of a great size; this bird is very plentiful in Central and South America in a wild state, and oftenattains a large size, weighing 30 or 40 pounds; the natives have a simple and curious method of catching these birds, which are extremely shy, never allowing any one to approach near to them. A sort of cage is built of twigs, large enough to contain many, and having holes close to the ground all round, of a size just sufficient to admit a Turkey when its head is bent down; leading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed, but none within, the birds coming to pick the corn, follow up the line of corn with their heads down, till they are within the inclosure, when finding no more, they raise up their heads and cannot get out, for they have not the sense to stoop their heads, so as to allow of their exit.

HERONfig.56.—1,HERON(Ardea cinerea); 2,CRANE(Megalornis cinerea).

fig.56.—1,HERON(Ardea cinerea); 2,CRANE(Megalornis cinerea).

4. TheGrallatoresinclude the Herons and Cranes (fig. 56), which wade into streams and catch fish; these are furnished with long legs, neck, and beak, and when they have gone into the water as far as their long legs permit, they stand still and wait with the head resting on the shoulders and the eyes fixed on the stream, till an unlucky fish approaches near enough, when with a quick stroke they dart at it, and catch it; they are very picturesque objects, standing on one leg (as they commonly do) in some lonely pool or stream.

5. TheNatatores, a very large class of Birds, live almost entirely in the water, they are web-footed and swim beautifully, as the Swans, Geese, Ducks, &c. (fig 57); these feed in general upon the vegetation growing in, and on the margin of the water, also on worms, larvæ, &c.; they have a beautiful mode of rising and flying in a line, when disturbed from their haunts, and this line is maintained for a long distance, and is sometimes double like the letter V, one bird leading and the others following in single file.

FIG. 57. 1, SWAN (Cygnus mansuetus); 2, GEESE (Anser ferus); 3 and 4, DUCK and WILD DUCKS (Anas Boschas).

FIG. 58. GROUP OF MAMMALIA.1, Leopard (Leopardus varius); 2, Bear (Ursus arctos); 3, Goat (Hircus aegagrus); 4, Boar (Sus scrofa); 5, Beaver (Castor fiber); 6, Armadillo (Dasypus); 7. Monkeys (Semnopitheci); 8, Seal (Phoca vitulina); 9, Bat (Plecotus auritus).

This class is divided into twelve orders:—

1.Marsupiata(Pouched) Kangaroo.2.Monotremata(Having but one vent) Platypus.3.Rodentia(Gnawing) Beaver, Rabbit.4.Edentata(Toothless) Anteater.5.Ruminantia(Chewing) Ox, Deer, Sheep.6.Pachydermata(Thick skinned) Horse, Elephant.7.Cetacea(Whale-like) Whale, Porpoise.8.Carnivora(Flesh-eating) Lion, Tiger.9.Insectivora(Insect-eating) Mole, Hedgehog.10.Cheiroptera(Hand-winged) Bat.11.Quadrumana(Four-handed) Monkey, Ape.12.Bimana(Two-handed) Man.

These twelve orders of the class "Mammalia," of the division "Vertebrata," (as their names imply), have their peculiarities, such as fit them to their modes of life, as, the medium in which they live, the climate, the food they eat, and the manner of obtaining it. They have all the five special senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, but very differently developed in respect to power. Yet, as a whole, they maintain a similitude. They have all internal skeletons, and each part of this skeleton exists in all, but modified to suit different purposes. They have all the peculiar attributes of the "Mammalia," such as suckling their young, being born alive, having four extremities, warm blood, respiration by lungs, and a heart with two auricles and two ventricles.

A general description of the anatomy and some of the functions of Man will be given hereafter, and will apply equally to all the Mammalia; always bearing in mind that the difference in structure of every animal, although making it inferior to Man, does not do away with any of the essential qualities, which constitute it one of the members of the highest group; for, although immensely inferior to Man, yet the Mammalia are for the most part greatly superior to all the classes below it, the capability of being educated, being in itself a vast step beyond mere instinct, wonderful though this may be, and developed to an extraordinary degree, as in some of the insects; yet, in these, there is no possibility of improving it, while in some of the Mammalia, as the Dog, Horse, Elephant, and Monkey, there is an evident tendency to progressive improvement when aided by the example and tuition of Man.

FIG. 59. 1, KANGAROO (Macropas major); 2, OPOSSUM. (Didelphus Virginiana)

1. TheMarsupiatainclude the Kangaroos and Opossums (fig. 59). They are characterised by the possession of a pouch at the lower part of the abdomen, into which the young enter as soon as born, for they are born in a very imperfect state, and when in the pouch they adhere to the teat of themother, where they remain till more fully developed. In these animals the hind legs are greatly developed, and the fore legs but little. They progress by enormous leaps, resting on the hinder legs and tail, both of which are very strong. They belong exclusively to Australia, which appears to produce many forms having peculiarities not met with elsewhere, and among the lowest of their type; this and the next order appear somewhat to partake of the form of the Bird, the undeveloped state of the young in the Marsupiata, being an approach to the egg of the Oviparous animals.

FIG. 60.—PLATYPUS, OR DUCK-BILL (Ornithorynchus).

2. TheMonotremataincludes the Duck-bill, called also "Platypus," and "Ornithorynchus paradoxus," (fig. 60), a most singular combination of the forms of the mammal and thebird. It has a mouth resembling the bill of a Duck, and several other peculiarities, which lead to the consideration of it as one of the connecting links between the forms of the Mammalia and Birds.

FIG. 61.—BEAVERS (Castor fiber).

3. TheRodentiacomprise the Rat, Beaver, Rabbit, Hare, Mouse, &c. They live upon almost any kind of vegetable matter; the Rat and Mouse will eat anything they can get. Their incisor teeth are two in front of each jaw, and are chisel-shaped and very sharp; they are so constructed that they shall be kept sharp by being used, which is effected by the hardest part or enamel being in front in a thin layer, so that it is not so easily worn away as the bony part. If these animals be fed on soft food, their teeth continue to grow nevertheless, and protrude from their mouths in a most singular way. The Beaver (fig. 61) is almost aquatic in its habits, it gnaws through the stems of trees, and uses them to dam up the water of the stream they inhabit, so as to secure a constant supply. They build houses or huts of wood, mud, and stones, which they unite in constructing. These houses have their entrances beneath the water, sothat the Beavers dive to enter them; they have two divisions or rooms in them, and are sufficiently large to lodge several families. The Rat is too well-known to need much description. The brown or Norway Rat has only been an inhabitant of this country about forty years, the black Rat being before that time the usual house Rat, but it is now almost exterminated, specimens being very rare. There are several other species of Rats; the best known is the Water Rat, who burrows in brooks and ditches, and partly lives in the water. Of the Mouse there are also several species. Besides the usual house Mouse, there is the wood Mouse, which forms a magazine of grain and nuts underground for winter store; and the harvest Mouse, which builds a little round nest between the stalks of corn. The Squirrel is also of this order. This pretty little creature lives in the trees, chiefly feeding upon nuts; can leap well, and run up the branches of trees with surprising agility. The Flying Squirrel has a broad expansion of skin betweenthe fore and hind legs on each side, so that when stretched out, they form a sort of parachute; this enables the creature to leap to a great distance from tree to tree, and supports it in the air as it goes. The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), so celebrated for its quills, which supply a sort of defensive armour, is of this order.

FIG. 62. ANTEATER (Myrmecophaga jubata).

4. TheEdentata, or Anteaters, have no teeth, but a peculiarly shaped tongue, which is covered with viscid mucus, and which they project and retract with great rapidity, causing the Ants and Termites, on which they feed, to adhere to it, and be carried into their mouths. The Great Anteater (Myrmecophaga jubata, fig. 62) is a very extraordinary animal in appearance; it has an enormously prolonged nose, and the back is covered with a sort of mane; the tail, also, is of prodigious size, and very bushy; when this curious animal lies down to sleep, the long snout is thrust under it, and the tail laid across the back, the end ofthe snout projecting behind. In this position, it would lead anyone to suppose that the head was where the tail really is, and that when looking at the creature's hinder part, they were looking at its head; and the sudden reversal of the position of these parts, when it gets up quickly, is certainly extremely ridiculous.

FIG. 63.—GROUP OF RUMINANTS.1, Ox (Bos taurus); 2, Sheep (Ovis aries); 3, Red Deer (Cervus elaphus); 4, Camel (Camelus Arabicus); 5, Llama (Pacos).

5. TheRuminantia.—The Ruminating animals (fig. 63) are those which chew the cud. There are a great many species, and their members are also very numerous. The Ox, and its varieties, the Buffalo, Bison, Yak, &c.; the Deer, Antelopes, Gazelles, &c.; the Sheep, Goat, Giraffe, and Camel, all belong to the Ruminants. These all have hoofs, cloven into two parts; have no incisor (or front) teeth in the upper jaw; and are essentially grazing animals. They have stomachs made up of four compartments; into the first of these (the Rumen) the crude grass enters, and is afterwards returned to the mouth, and again chewed at leisure; the molar teeth, or grinders, are flat, and roughened, so as to effect this purpose; and, that they may not become smooth by wear, the enamel (or hard part) of the teeth is so disposed in various layers, that it is always projecting above the bony part, which wears down first. The Ruminants are gregarious, associating in herds of enormous numbers. Cumming, describes the herds of Springboks, in South Africa, as being in countless thousands, continuing to pass for hours together; and covering the plain as far as the eye could reach. Cattlin, also, describes the American Bison of the Prairies as being congregated in the most surprising numbers. Some of the members of this order are very large and heavy animals. The Cape Buffalo is of enormous strength, and very fierce when attacked.

Dr. Livingstone, in his Travels in South Africa, speaking of the Lion, says:—"He seldom attacks full-grown Buffalos; but frequently, when a Buffalo-calf is caught by him, the cow rushes to the rescue, and a toss from her often kills him. One we found was killed thus, and on the Leambye, another, which died near Sesheke, had all the appearance of having received his death-blow from a Buffalo. It is questionable if a single Lion ever attacks a full-grown Buffalo; the amount of roaring heard at night, on occasions when a Buffalo is killed, seems to indicate there are always more than one Lion engaged in the onslaught."

The Ruminants are the only members of the Mammalia furnished with horns, and some of these are of enormous size; the Elk, Buffalo, and Steinbok, are instances. In the Deer tribe they are shed yearly, and increase in size and in the number of their branches at each fresh growth. The flesh of the Ruminants forms the chief animal food of Man,and some tribes of the American aborigines live exclusively on it.

The Camel, next to the Horse, is the most useful beast of burthen. The Arabs greatly prize these creatures, and from their power of carrying a supply of water in their stomach, they are very useful in crossing the desert; their hoofs are also spread out so as to enable them better to walk on the soft and yielding sand; there are two kinds of Camel, the Bactrian, with two humps, and the Arabian Camel with but one. The Dromedary is a small agile breed of the Arabian Camel, celebrated for its swiftness.

FIG. 64.—PACHYDERMATA.1, Elephant (Elephas Indicus); 2, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis); 3, Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius); 4, Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).

6. ThePachydermataor thick-skinned animals (fig.64) include the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass, and its varieties; Hog, Tapir, Hippopotamus, &c.; these have many of them a single solid hoof on each foot, as in the Horse and Ass tribe, others have separate toes clothed with a hoof, as in the Elephant. In nearly all the Pachydermata there is a prolongation of the nose or upper lip, the Horse even has some power of prehension in this part; the Rhinoceros is able to bring the upper lip into so fine a point as to pick up a crumb, and in the Tapir there is a considerable prolongation of the nose, while the Elephant has this part developed into a complete prehensile organ.

The Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hog are fond of wallowing in the mud, with which they completely besmear themselves, and seem to derive great satisfaction therefrom. There are two kinds of Elephants, the Asiatic, or Indian, and the African, the chief distinction between them is the size of the ear, that of the African Elephant being of very great size; there is a very young specimen of this kind in the British Museum, but a full-grown African Elephant has never been brought to England. The Elephant is furnished with a pair of enormous tusks proceeding from the upper jaw, these are composed of solid ivory, and often weigh nearly a hundred pounds each; with the trunk, the Elephant is able to gather food in the form of grass and herbage, and put it into its mouth, it can also draw up a considerable quantity of water, and this being poured down its throatfrom the trunk, constitutes its usual mode of eating and drinking, as the neck is too short for the animal to reach the ground except by the trunk. The Indian Elephant is much used as a beast of burthen, and for various other purposes; they are very docile and sagacious.

The Horse has been subjected to the service of Man from the earliest records, indeed it is not known when this beautiful animal was first trained to be his useful servant and companion; he is mentioned, in the Scriptures, as being subjected to the Bit, and in the sculptures brought fromthe ruins of Nineveh by Layard; the Horse is constantly sculptured, decked in the most gorgeous trappings and driven by reins and a bit, almost in the same manner as in the present day, and these sculptures are among the earliest records of Man's hands. There are several breeds of Horses; the chief are the Arabian (from which stock proceed our race horses), the Flanders or Cart-horse, and the Sheltie or Shetland horse. The Horse is nowhere found in a state of nature, yet many wild Horses graze on the plains of America, but it is known that these are not native, but proceed from those placed there to graze, and which have bred and run wild. The Ass is distinguished from the horse by the tail having short hair on it, except at the extremity, and the mane being short and upright.

FIG. 65.—WHALE> (Balena mysticetus).

7. TheCetacea, or Whale kind, inhabit chiefly the colder latitudes, they are entirely aquatic, but breathe air; the Whale, Narwal, Dolphins, and Porpoises are the chief members.

In Whales (fig. 65) the anterior extremities are so developed as to form a sort of fin called a "flipper," but in which all the usual bones of an extremity exist; the posterior extremities are modified so as to completely resemble the tail of a fish; they have smooth skins devoid of hair. All these tribes have a considerable thickness of fat orblubber (as it is called) beneath their skin; this protects them from the cold, for most of these creatures live in the very coldest climates, the oily matters acting as a non-conductor; it is for the oil yielded by this blubber that they are chiefly caught. The Cachelot or Sperm-whale (Phyceter macrocephalus) also yields spermaceti, which crystallizes from the oily matter contained in its head, and the Greenland-whale yields baleen or whale-bone, which is a substance forming a sort of sieve in the mouth, through which they draw the sea water and catch all it may contain for food, this consists of all small fish, but principally a small mollusc called the "Clio Borealis," which inhabits the northern seas in great numbers; a whole shoal of these is taken in by the Whale at a draught. The Whale often measures 60 or 70 feet in length, and the Razor-back Whale sometimes 100; a large Whale will yield 20 tuns of oil. The Narwal or Sea Unicorn is from 20 to 30 feet long; it has but one tooth, which is developed to a prodigious length, and projects in front in a straight line like a sort of horn, there are however sometimes two of these, one being always much larger than the other; this horn is 8 or 10 feet long, perfectly straight and twisted, it is used by the animal to break the ice so that it may breathe, and also to spear and capture fish, on which the Narwal lives. This horn produces beautiful ivory.

FIG. 67.—CARNIVORA.Lion (Leo Barberus); 2, Tiger (Tigris regalis).

Lion (Leo Barberus); 2, Tiger (Tigris regalis).

8. TheCarnivora, or Flesh-eaters (fig. 67), include the Feline tribe, as the Lion, Tiger, Jaguar (fig. 68), Leopard, &c.; the Canine, as the Hyena, Wolf, Jackal, Dog, Fox, &c., the Ursine, which includes the Bears, and the Phocine, including the Seal kind. The Feline tribe are formed to spring upon, hold, and rend other animals which they kill for food, and have teeth and claws suitable to this purpose, and great activity and strength to enable them to contend with, and overcome their prey. They are, for the most part, nocturnal in their habits, seldom seeking their prey but in the night, and then mostly frequenting the drinking-places where other animals come for water. They attack by gradually stalking after the animal, getting nearer and nearer, till at lasta well-directed spring brings them on to it at once. That these animals may better surprise their prey, they have eyes so extremely sensitive to light that they can see well when it would appear to Man to be quite dark, hence the saying, "cats can see in the dark." The Iris (or coloured part of the eyes) in this tribe is made so as to close up into a slit (1, fig. 66), and thus exclude the light of the day to a great extent, which would otherwise be too powerful, and injure the extreme sensibility of their vision. Their claws (2, fig. 66) are made to retract by a tendon, so as to keep their points from being worn by walking. This accounts for the silent, stealthy tread of the domestic cat; it enables them to creep quietly upon their prey, and at the moment they are about to seize them, the claws are extended. The pointed or flesh-teeth of the Carnivora are greatly developed, and are very sharp. Their molars (3, fig. 66) are pointed, and suitable to the food they are intended to masticate. The tongue of the feline tribe is very rough, and is used to rasp off the flesh from bones. When closely examined, the surface of their tongues present a series of horny hooks, all bending in one direction, and forming a sort of rasp.

EYE OF LIONFIG. 66.—1, EYE OF LION. 2, CLAW. 3, TEETH.

FIG. 66.—1, EYE OF LION. 2, CLAW. 3, TEETH.

The Lion is usually placed at the head of this race, but itis questionable whether he is so powerful as the Bengal Tiger, and combats between the two, generally give the mastery to the Tiger.

Dr. Livingstone, in his description of the Lion, takes off a good deal of the poetical nobility and imaginary superiority with which the Lion has been commonly invested. The following selections will show what are Dr. Livingstone's impressions from personal experience:—"When a Lion is met in the day-time, a circumstance by no means unfrequent to travellers in these parts, if preconceived notions do not lead them to expect something very 'noble' or'majestic,' they will see merely an animal somewhat larger than the biggest Dog they ever saw, and partaking very strongly of the canine features. When encountered in the day-time the Lion stands a second or two gazing, then turns slowly round and walks as slowly away for a dozen paces, looking over his shoulder, then begins to trot, and when he thinks himself out of sight bounds off like a greyhound. By day, as a rule, there is not the smallest danger of Lions which are not molested attacking Man, nor even on a clear, moonlight night, except at the breeding-time.

"So general, however, is the sense of security on moonlight nights that we seldom tied up our Oxen, but let them lie loose by the wagons; while, on a dark, rainy night, if a Lion is in the neighbourhood, he is almost sure to venture to kill an Ox. His approach is always stealthy, and the least appearance of a trap is enough to cause him to refrain from making the last spring.

"Lions never go near any Elephants, except the calves, which, when young, are sometimes torn by them. Every living thing retires before the lordly Elephant, yet a full-grown one would fall an easier prey than the Rhinoceros. The Lion rushes off at the mere sight of the latter beast."

JFIG. 68.—JAGUAR (Leopardus onca).

FIG. 68.—JAGUAR (Leopardus onca).

The Bengal or Royal Tiger is the largest of the Feline tribe, being generally 8 feet long and 4 high. It is, however, often found much larger. It would appear from the most correct accounts that the Lion is hardly a match for this formidable creature. The Tiger is as beautiful as dreadful; its colour is of a bright orange-buff, with white face and under parts, the back and legs being beautifully striped with black. The Tiger has no mane, but is of a sleek, graceful make, though terribly powerful. It inhabits India chiefly, and will prowl for hundreds of miles by the sides of rivers, secreting itself in the jungle and sleeping by day. Sometimes traces of a Tiger will be seen in the locality of villages or towns, and stray Sheep or Bullocks disappear from time to time, but it will destroy any human being who unluckily approaches its haunts, and having once tasted human blood, appears afterwards to prefer this kind of food to all others, and will pick outa cow-herd in preference to the cattle he is driving; in all probability this preference is really owing to the ease with which the capture can be made; and the small resistance Man is capable of offering; be this as it may, the Tiger having once destroyed a man is called a "man-eater," and a reward is offered for his head; when this occurs near any of the stations of the East India Company, the officers generally make it a point to sally forth and endeavour to capture this terrific beast; this they do on foot, as it is impossible to depend on any Horse, their natural fear of the Tiger being so great that all Horses either shy, or at once retreat. The officers, armed with guns, take with them anumber of natives, who with long canes beat the jungle and generally start out the monster, at whom there are a few deadly rifles pointed, which invariably bring him at once to the ground.

The largest of this tribe inhabiting the New World, is the Puma or Cougar, which is much inferior to the Lion both in size and strength, although very fierce and dangerous, it is of a pale drab colour inclining to grey; it climbs trees and stretches itself along their branches, waiting for some unlucky animal to pass, when it drops quietly upon its shoulders and quickly destroys it. The Leopard tribe includes several varieties, as the Jaguar, Panther, Ounce, Ocelot, &c., they are all more or less spotted with black, and possess all the ferocity and much of the strength of the nobler species of their tribe, the smallest of them being more than a match for a man without weapons.

The Canine tribe of the Carnivora includes Dogs, Wolves, Jackalls, and Foxes. The Dogs are greatly altered from their wild nature by being domesticated, resembling in their wild state a small Wolf; the Dog in its domesticated state is too well known to need any description here. The Jackals and Wolves generally hunt in packs, and devour all kinds of offal, flesh and bones, which their strong jaws and teeth appear to crush and break up without difficulty.

The Bears form the next tribe, these are often very large animals; the Grisly Bear of the Rocky Mountains (Damis ferox) is the largest of the Brown Bears, it often measures eight feet long and is extremely powerful, the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is smaller, but still a powerful animal, the Polar Bear (Thalarctos maratimus) is white and is the largest of all the Bears, measuring eight or nine feet long, it is coated with long shaggy hair, and even its feet are clothed with hair underneath, that it may not slip on the ice, and to defend it from the cold; this Bear is found in the Arctic Regions among the ice, and feeds upon Fish and other marine animals. Bears in general are carnivorous, but eat many other kinds of food; they are very fond of honey, and are never contented if they smell it, until they get at it, for this purpose they will often gnaw a hole in a tree andthrust in their head. Advantage is taken of this predilection to entrap the animal, the natives of the Rocky Mountains often baiting Bear traps with honey.

The Seals and Walrus (fig. 69) form the next, or Phocine tribe; they are amphibious, and feed chiefly on Fish, inhabiting the colder regions of the North; their hinder extremities are but little developed, and serve the purposes of a tail. They are covered with a close fur, and the canine teeth of the Walrus are so largely developed in the upper jaw as to form tusks, by means of which they hook on and attach themselves to the blocks of ice.

FIG. 69.—WALRUS (Trichicus rosmarus); SEAL (Phoca vitulina).

FIG. 70.—INSECTIVORA.1, Hedgehog (Erinaceus Europæus); 2, Mole (Talpa Europæus); 3, Shrew-mouse (Sorex araneus).

9. TheInsectivora, such as the Mole, Hedgehog, and Shrew-mouse, (fig. 70), live entirely on insects, the Mole burrows for them in the earth, and the fore paws are so made asto dig out and throw the earth behind it, and it burrows in this way with the greatest rapidity. As it is nearly always beneath the surface of the earth, and consequently in the dark, so a sense of vision is not required, it is therefore blind, but the senses of touch and smell, being very acute enable it to find its food. The Hedgehog and Shrew-mouse are furnished with pointed noses, with which they dig up the earth in search of insects, and when found they devour them with amazing rapidity. The Hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball and defying the attacks of almost anything, for its bristles are so stiff and sharp that they prick like thorns, and make a capital defensive armour; the Hedgehog is eaten by many, especially by the Gipsies, who esteem it a dainty.

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