THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

SAVONAROLA.—Against the rule ofLorenzo, one voice was raised, that of the Dominican monkJerome Savonarola, a preacher of fervid eloquence, who aimed in his harangues, not only to move individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough amendment of public morals, and a political reform in the direction of liberty. In his discourses, however, he lashed the ecclesiastical corruptions of the time, not sparing those highest in power. There were two parties, that of the young nobles,—thearribiati, or "enraged;" and that of the people,—thefrateschi, or friends of the monks.Savonarolaproclaimed that a great punishment was impending over Italy. He predicted the invasion from north of the Alps.

FLORENCE IN THE AGE OF LORENZO.—Florencein the time ofLorenzopresented striking points of resemblance toAthensin its most flourishing days. In some respects, the two communities were quite unlike.Florencewas not a conquering power, and had no extensive dominion. Civil and military life were distinct from one another: the Italian had come to rely more upon diplomacy than upon arms, and his wealth and mercantile connections made him anxious to avoid war. In Florence, moreover, trade and the mechanic arts were in high repute; industry was widely diffused, and was held in honor. But in equality and pride of citizenship, in versatility of talent and intellectual activity, in artistic genius and in appreciation of the products of art, in refinement of manners, cheerfulness of temper, and a joyous social life, theFlorentinesin the fifteenth century compare well with theAtheniansin the age ofPericles. InFlorence, the burgess or citizen had attained to the standing to which in other countries he only aspired. Nobility of blood was counted as of some worth; but where there was not wealth or intellect with it, it was held in comparatively low esteem. Prosperous merchants, men of genius and education, and skillful artisans were on a level with the best. Men of noble extraction engaged in business. The commonwealth conferred knighthood on the deserving, according to the practice of sovereign princes. Persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to labor in their shops and counting-houses. Frugal in their domestic life, the Florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict sumptuary laws. Limits were set to indulgence in finery, food, etc. The population of Florence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand. In the neighborhood of the city, there was a multitude of attractive, richly furnished villas and country-houses. Among the industries in which the busy population was engaged in 1472, a chronicler enumerates eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of the silk-merchants' guild, thirty-three great banks, and forty-four goldsmiths' and jewellers' shops. The houses of the rich were furnished with elegance, and decorated with beautiful works of art. There was a great contrast between the simplicity of ordinary domestic life, especially as regards provisions for the table, and the splendor displayed on public occasions, or when guests were to be hospitably entertained. The effect of literary culture was seen in the tone of conversation. It is remarkable that the great sculptors were all goldsmiths, and came out of the workshop. A new generation of painters had a like practical training. In those days, there was a union of manual skill with imagination. The art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped all the others. In such a society, there was naturally a great relish for public festivals, both sacred and secular. Everywhere in Italy theMysteries, or religious plays, exhibiting events of scriptural history, were in vogue; brilliant pantomimes were enjoyed, and the festivities of the yearly carnival were keenly relished. In the government of Florence, the liberty of the citizens was mainly confined to the choosing of their magistrates. Once in office, they ruled with arbitrary power. There was no liberty of the press, nor was there freedom of discussion in the public councils. It was a community where, with all its cultivation and elegance, morality was at a low ebb.Lorenzohimself, although "he had all the qualities of poet and statesman, connoisseur and patron of learning, citizen and prince," nevertheless "could not keep himself from the epicureanism of the time," and was infected with its weaknesses and vices. "These joyous and refined civilizations," writes M.Taine, "based on a worship of pleasure and intellectuality,—Greece of the fourth century, Provence of the twelfth, and Italy of the sixteenth,—were not enduring. Man in these lacks some checks. After sudden outbursts of genius and creativeness, he wanders away in the direction of license and egotism; the degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the sophist and the dilettant."

THE POPES.—The Popes,Nicholas V.(1447-1455), a protector of scholars and a cultivated man, andPius II.(1458-1464),

[Mainly from George'sGenealogical Tables.]

zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the Turk.Paul II. (1464-1471) pursued the same course; but after him, for a half-century, there ensued the deplorable era when the pontiffs were more busied with other interests than with those pertaining to the weal of Christianity. The pontificates ofSixtus IV. (1471-1484),Innocent VIII. (1484-1492), and especially ofAlexander VI. (1492-1503), the second pope of theBorgiafamily, present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of "nepotism," as the projects for the temporal advancement of their relatives were termed. The Roman principality was the prey of petty tyrants, and the theater of wars, and of assassinations perpetrated by the knife or with poison.Alexander VI. succeeded in subduing or destroying all these petty lords. He was seconded in these endeavors by his sonCæsar Borgia, brave, accomplished, and fascinating, but a monster of treachery and cruelty. No deed was savage or base enough to cost him any remorse. Hardly had he acquired theRomagna, when PopeAlexanderdied. Although his death was due to Roman fever, legend speedily ascribed it to poison. His son was betrayed, was imprisoned for a time byFerdinandthe Catholic, and, while he was in the service of the King of Navarre, was slain before the castle ofViana.

NAPLES.—In Naples,Ferdinand I., who was established on his throne by the defeat of his competitors in 1462, provoked a revolt of his barons by his tyranny, invited them to a festival to celebrate a reconciliation with them, and caused them to be seized at the table, and then to be put to death. He treated the people with equal injustice and cruelty. He allowed the Turks to takeOtranto(1480), and the Venetians to takeGallipoliandPolicastro(1484).

WEAKNESS OF ITALY.—Italy, at the close of the fifteenth century, with all its proficiency in art and letters, and its superiority in the comforts and elegances of life, was a prey to anarchy. This was especially true after the death ofLorenzo de Medici. Diplomacy had become a school of fraud. Battles had come to be, in general, bloodless; but either perfidy, or prison and the dagger, were the familiar instruments of warfare. The country from its beauty, its wealth, and its factious state, was an alluring prize to foreign invaders.

THEIR CONQUESTS.—The empire ofMohammed II. (1451-1481) extended from the walls ofBelgrade, on the Danube, to the middle of Asia Minor. To the east was the Seljukian principality ofCaramaniain the center of Asia Minor, and, when that was finally overthrown (1486),Persia, whose hostility was inflamed by differences of sect. The conquest of the Greek Empire was achieved byMohammed.Matthias Corvinus(1458-1493), the successor ofHunyady, was the greatest of the kings of Hungary, and defended the line of the Danube against the Turkish assaults. For twenty-three yearsScanderbeg, the intrepid Prince ofAlbania, repulsed all the attacks of the Moslems. It was not until ten years after his death (1467) that his principal stronghold was surrendered to the invaders. The attacks on the Venetians have already been mentioned, as well as the capture ofOtranto.Bajazet II. was more inclined to study than to war: his brotherDjem, who tried to supplant him, passed as a prisoner into the hands of PopeAlexander VI. An annual tribute was paid by the Sultan for keeping him from coming back to Turkey; and when, at last, he was released, rumor declared that he had been poisoned.Selim I. (1512-1520) entered anew on the path of conquest. He defeated thePersians, and made the Tigris his eastern boundary. He annexed to his empireMesopotamia,Syria, andEgypt. The Sultan now became the commander of the faithful, the inheritor of the prophetic as well as military leadership. The conquest ofAlexandriabySelim(1517) inflicted a mortal blow on the commerce ofVenice, by intercepting its communication with the Orient. The despotic domination ofSelimstretched from the Danube to the Euphrates, and from the Adriatic to the cataracts of the Nile. Such was the empire which the Ottoman conqueror handed down to his son,Soliman I. the Magnificent (1520-1566).Mohammed II. andSelimwere the two conquerors by whom the Ottoman Empire was built up. Each of them combined with an iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science and poetry, and the genius of a ruler. They take rank among the most eminent tyrants in Asiatic history. While they were spreading their dominion far and wide, the popes and the sovereigns of the West did nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of confronting so great a danger.

IVAN III, Vassilievitch, 1462-1505,m.Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaeologus,brother of Emperor Constantine XIII.|+—BASIL IV, 1505-1533.|+—IVAN IV,[1] 1533-1584,|m.| +—Anastasia| || | HOUSE OF ROMANOFF| || +—Nicetas.| || +—Mary [4] (Marta the Nun),m.| Theodore (Philaret the Metropolitan).| || +—MICHAEL, 1613-1645.| || +—ALEXIS, 1645-1676.| || +—THEODORE, 1676-1682.| || +—IVAN V, 1682-1689, resigned; d. 1696.| | || | +—ANNA, 1730-1740.| | || | +—Catharinem.Charles Leopold,| | Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin| | || | +—Anna,m.Antony Ulric, son of| | Ferdinand Albert II,| | of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel.| | || | +—IVAN VI, 1740-1741, deposed.| || +—PETER I (the Great) 1689-1725,m.| (1), Eudocia;| || +—Alexis, executed 1718.m.| Charlotte, d. of Lewis Rudolph,| Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel| || +—PETER II, 1727-1730.|| (2), CATHARINE I, 1725-1727.| || +—Anna, d. 1738,m.| | Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp.| | || | +—PETER III, January-July, 1762| | (deposed, and died soon after)m.| | CATHERINE II of Anhalt, 1762-1796.| | || | +—PAUL, 1796-1801.| | || | +—ALEXANDER I, 1801-1825.| | || | +—NICHOLAS, 1825-1855,m.| | Charlotte, daughter of Frederick| | William III of Prussia.| | || | +—ALEXANDER II, 1855-1881, m.| | Mary of Hesse Darmstadt.| | || | +—ALEXANDER III, 1881- m.| | Mary (Dagmar), daughter| | of Christian IX of Denmark| || +—ELIZABETH, 1741-1762.|+—THEODORE, 1584-1598.m.+—Irene,[2]|+—BORIS, Godounof, [3] 1598-1605.

1 First Czar. 2 Declined the crown on Theodore's death, which was seized by her brother. 3 Succeeded by an imposter pretending to be Demetrius, son of Ivan IV, who reigned for one year; then Basil V, 1606-1610; then chaos until 1613. 4 Said to be a descendent of the old royal house.

[Mainly from George'sGenealogical Tables.]

RUSSIA: IVAN III.—For two centuries Russia paid tribute to the Tartar conquerors in the South, the "Golden Horde" (p. 283). The liberator of his people from this yoke wasIvan III.,—Ivan the Great,—(1462-1505). In the period when the nations of the West were becoming organized,Russiaescaped from its servitude, and made some beginnings of intellectual progress.Ivanwas a cold and calculating man, who preferred to negotiate rather than to fight; but he inflicted savage punishments, and even "his glance caused women to faint." He was able to subdue the rich trading-city ofNovgorod(1478), which had been connected with the Hanseatic League, and where a party endeavored to bring to pass a union withPoland. He conquered unknown frozen districts in the North, and smaller princedoms, includingTver, in the interior. The empire of theHordewas so broken up thatIvanachieved an almost bloodless triumph, which made Russia free. In wars withLithuania, Western Russia was reconquered up to theSoja.IvanmarriedSophia Palæologus, a niece of the last Christian emperor of the East. She taught him "to penetrate the secret of autocracy." Numerous Greek emigrants of different arts and professions came toMoscow. Ivan took for the new arms of Russia the two-headed eagle of the Byzantine Cæsars, and thenceforward Russia looked on herself as the heir of the Eastern Empire. The Russian metropolitan, called afterwardsPatriarch, was now elected by Russian bishops.Moscowbecame "the metropolis of orthodoxy," and as such the protector of Greek Christians in the East.Ivanlaid out in the city the fortified inclosure styled theKremlin. He brought into the country German and Italian mechanics. It was he who founded the greatness of Russia.Vassali Ivanovitch(1505-1533), his son, continued the struggle withLithuania, and acquiredSmolensk(1514). He exchanged embassies with most of the sovereigns of the West.

IVAN IV. (1533-1584).—Ivan IV., Ivan the Terrible, first took the title ofCzar, since attached to "the Autocrat of all the Russias." It was the name that was given, in the Slavonian books which he read, to the ancient kings and emperors of the East and of Rome.Moscowwas now to be a third Rome, the successor ofConstantinople.Ivanconquered the Tartar principalities ofKazanandAstrakhanin the South, and extended his dominion to the Caucasus. TheVolga, through its entire course, was now a Russian river. He brought German mechanics into Russia, established printing-presses, and made a commercial treaty with QueenElizabeth, whom he invited to an alliance againstPolandandSweden. It was in this reign (1581-1582) that a brigand chief,Irmakby name (a Cossack, in the service of the Czar), crossed theUralswith a few hundred followers, and made the conquest of the vast region ofSiberia, then under the dominion of the Tartars.Ivansent thither bishops and priests. He had to cedeLivoniato theSwedes, who, with their allies were too strong to be overcome. InRussia, he put down the aristocracy, and crushed all resistance to his personal rule. Whatever tyranny and cruelty this result cost, it preventedRussiafrom becoming an anarchic kingdom likePoland. Ivan, by forming the national guard ofstreltsiorstrelitz, laid the foundation of a standing army. In his personal conduct, brutal and sensual practices alternated with exercises of piety. In a fit of wrath, he struck his sonIvana fatal blow, and in consequence was overwhelmed with sorrow. After a short reign of his second son,Feodor(1584-1598), who was weak in mind and body, the throne was usurped by one of the aristocracy, the able and ambitious regent,Boris Godounof(1598-1605).

THE COSSACKS.—These were brought into subjection byIvan IV. and his successors. They were robber hordes of mixed origin, partly Tartar and partly Russian. Their abodes were near the rapids of theDnieper, and on theDon, and at the foot of theCaucasus. They were fierce warriors, and did a great service to Russia in subduing the wild nomad tribes on the north and east of the regions where the Cossacks dwelt.

TIMES OF TROUBLE.—After the death ofBoris Godounof, two pretenders, one after the other, each assuming to beDemetrius, the younger son ofIvan,—a son who had been put to death,— seized on power. This was rendered possible by the mutual strife of Russian factions, and by the help afforded to the impostors by thePoles.Sigismund III., king of Poland, openly espoused the cause of the secondDemetrius.Moscowwas forced to surrender (1610); and the czar whom the nobles had enthroned,Basil V., died in a Polish prison. These events gave rise to a lasting enmity between the two Slavonic nations. In 1611 thePoleswere driven out by a national rising, which led to the elevation to the throne ofMichael Romanoff(1613-1645), the founder of the present dynasty of czars. Peace was concluded withGustavus Adolphusof Sweden, and with the Poles. Commercial treaties were made with foreign nations. In Russia there was a great increase of internal prosperity.

SERFDOM IN RUSSIA.—The lower classes in Russia consisted of three divisions: 1. Slaves, captives taken in war, who were bought and sold. 2. Theinscribed peasants, who were attached to the soil and becameserfs. They belonged to thecommune, or village, which held the land, and as a unit paid to the lord his dues. They made up the bulk of the rural population. The peasant was an arbitrary master, a little czar in his own family. 3. The free laborers, who could change their masters, but who soon fell into the rank of serfs. While the higher classes in Russia advanced, the condition of the rustics for several centuries continued to grow worse.

RUSSIAN SOCIETY.—The great nobles kept in their castles a host of servants. These were slaves, subject to the caprices of their master. Russian women were kept in seclusion. There was an Asiatic stamp imprinted on civil and social life. "Thanks to the general ignorance, there was no intellectual life in Russia: thanks to the seclusion of women, there was no society." By degrees intercourse with Western Europe was destined to soften, in some particulars, the harsh outlines of this picture.

EFFECT OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.—The establishment of absolute monarchy in Western Europe placed the resources of the nations at the service of their respective kings. The desire of national aggrandizement led to great European wars, which took the place of the feudal conflicts of a former day. These wars began with the invasion ofItalybyCharles VIII., king of France.

MOTIVES OF THE INVASION.—To this unwise enterpriseCharles VIII. was impelled by a romantic dream of conquest, which was not to be limited to the Italian peninsula. He intended to attack theTurksafterward, and to establish once more, under his protection, a Latin kingdom at Jerusalem. His counselors could not dissuade him from the hazardous undertaking. In order to set his hands free, he made treaties that were disadvantageous to France withHenry VII.,Maximilian, andFerdinandthe Catholic. He was invited to cross the Alps byLudovico il Moro(p. 374), by the Neapolitan barons, by all the enemies ofPope Alexander VI. The special ground of the invasion was the claim of the French king, through the house ofAnjou, to the throne ofNaples. In 1494 Charles crossed the Alps with a large army, and, with the support ofLudovico, advanced fromMilan, throughFlorenceandRometoNaples. When he was crowned he wore the imperial insignia as if pretending to the Empire of the East also. The rapid progress of the French power alarmed the Pope and the other princes, includingLudovicohimself, who was afraid that the king might cast a covetous eye on his own principality. A formidable league was formed againstCharles, including, besides the Italian princes,Ferdinand,Maximilian, andHenry VII. of England. It was the first European combination against France.Charlesleft eleven thousand men underGilbert de Montpensier, atNaples; and after being exposed to much peril, although he won a victory atFornovo(1495), he made his way back to France.Ferdinand II., aided by Spanish troops, expelled the French from Naples; and the remnant of their garrisons, after the death of Montpensier, was led back to France. The conquests of Charles were lost as speedily as they were gained. His great expedition proved a failure.

DEATH OF SAVONAROLA.—Civil strife continued in the Italian states. Savonarola had been excommunicated byAlexander VI. The combination of parties against him was too strong to be overcome by his supporters, and he was put to death in 1498.

LOUIS XII. (1498-1515): HIS FIRST ITALIAN WAR.—On the death ofCharles VIII., who left no male children, the crown reverted to his nearest relative,Louisof Orleans. He entered once more on the aggressive enterprise begun by his predecessor. He laid claim not only to the rights ofCharles VIII. at Naples, but also claimedMilanthrough his grandmotherValentine Visconti. In alliance withVenice, and withFlorenceto which he promisedPisa, then in revolt against the detested Florentine supremacy, and with the support ofCæsar Borgia, he entered Italy, and defeatedLudovico il MoroatNovara(1500).Ludovicohad before been driven out of Milan by the French, but had regained the city. He was imprisoned in France; and on his release twelve years afterward, he died from joy.Louisbargained withFerdinand the Catholicto divide with him the Neapolitan kingdom.Ferdinand, the king of Naples, was thus dethroned. ButFerdinandofSpainwas as treacherous in his dealing withLouisas he had been in relation to his Neapolitan namesake; and the kingdom fell into the hands ofGonsalvo de Cordova, the Spanish general.

THE SECOND ITALIAN WAR OF LOUIS.—Anxious for revenge,Louissent two armies over the Pyrenees, which failed of success, and a third army intoItalyunderLa Trémoille, which was defeated byGonsalvo, notwithstanding the gallantry ofBayard, the pattern of chivalry, the French knight "without fear and without reproach."

THE THIRD ITALIAN WAR OF LOUIS.—The third Italian war ofLouisbegan in 1507, and lasted eight years. It includes the history of the League ofCambray, and also of the anti-French League subsequently formed. France was barely saved from great calamities in consequence of foolish treaties, three in number, made atBloisin 1504. The party of the queen,Anne of Brittany, secured the betrothal ofClaude, the child ofLouis XII., toCharles of Austria, afterwardsCharles V., the son ofPhilip, with the promise of Burgundy and Brittany as her dowry. The arrangement was repudiated by the estates of France (1506).Claudewas betrothed toFrancis of Angoulême, the king's nearest male relative, and the heir of the French crown. On the marriage ofFerdinandtoGermaine of Foix,Louisagreed to give up his claims onNaples. The sufferings of Italy had redounded to the advantage ofVenice. Among her other gains, she had annexed certain towns in theRomagnawhich fell into anarchy at the expulsion ofCæsar Borgia. The energetic Pope,Julius II., organized a combination, the celebratedLeague of Cambray(1508), between himself, the EmperorMaximilian, the kings of France and of Aragon: its object was the humbling ofVenice, and the division of her mainland possessions among the partners in the League.

A fine army ofLouis, composed of French, Lombards, and Swiss, crossed theAdda, and routed the Venetians, who abandoned all their towns outside of Venice. Each of the other confederate powers now seized the places which it desired. France, mistress ofMilan, was at the height of her power. The Venetians, however, retookPaduafrom the emperor. The Pope made peace with them, and, fired with the spirit of Italian patriotism, organized a new league for the expulsion of the French—"the barbarians," as he called them—from the country. Old man as he was, he took the field himself in the dead of winter. He was defeated, and went to Rome.Louisconvoked a council atPisa, which was to deposeJulius. AHoly Leaguewas formed between the Pope, Venice,Ferdinandof Aragon, andHenry VIII. of England. The arms of the French underGaston of Foix, the young duke of Nemours, were for a while successful.Ravennawas in their hands. ButGastonfell at the moment of victory. The Swiss came down, and establishedMaximilian Sforzaat Milan.Leo X., of the house ofMedici, and hostile to France, was chosen Pope (1513). The French troops were defeated by the Swiss nearNovara, and driven beyond the Alps. France was attacked on the north by the English, withMaximilian, who had joined the League in 1513: andBayardwas taken captive.James IV. of Scotland, who had made a diversion in favor of France, was beaten and slain atFlodden Field(1513). The eastern borders of France were attacked by theSwiss Leagues, who, aided byAustrians, penetrated as far asDijon. They were bought off byLa Trémoillethe French commander, by a large payment of money, and by still more lavish promises. France concluded peace with the Pope, the emperor, and the king of Aragon (1514), and in the next year withHenry VIII., whose sister,Mary, Louis XII. married, a few months after the death of Anne of Brittany. He abandoned his pretensions to the Milanese, in favor of his younger daughterRenée, the wife ofHercules II., the duke ofFerrara. Louis died (1515), shortly after his marriage. The policy of the belligerent pontiff,Julius II., had triumphed. The French were expelled from Italy, but the Spaniards were left all the stronger.

The events just narrated bring us into the midst of the struggles and ambitions of ruling houses, diplomatic intercourse among states, and international wars. These are distinguishing features of modern times.

We have glanced at the new life of Europe in itspoliticalmanifestations. We have now to view this new life in other relations: we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus tointellectualeffort in different directions.

The termRenaissanceis frequently applied at present not only to the "new birth" of art and letters, but to all the characteristics, taken together, of the period of transition from the Middle Ages to modern life. The transformation in the structure and policy of states, the passion for discovery, the dawn of a more scientific method of observing man and nature, the movement towards more freedom of intellect and of conscience, are part and parcel of one comprehensive change,—a change which even now has not reached its goal. It was not so much "the arts and the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became vital at the time of the Renaissance," that created the new epoch: it was "the intellectual energy, the spontaneous outburst of intelligence, which enabled mankind at that moment to make use of them."

INVENTIONS: GUNPOWDER.—In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were brought into practical use several inventions most important in their results to civilization. Of these the principal weregunpowder, themariner's compass, andprintingby movable types.Gunpowderwas not first made bySchwartz, a monk ofFreiburg, as has often been asserted. We have notices, more or less obscure, of the use of an explosive material resembling it, among theChinese, among theIndiansin the East as early asAlexander the Great, and among theArabs. It was first brought into use in firearms in the middle of the fourteenth century. The effect was to make infantry an effective force, and to equalize combatants, since a peasant could handle a gun as well as a knight. Another consequence has been to mitigate the brutalizing influence of war on the soldiery, by making it less a hand-to-hand encounter, an encounter with swords and spears, attended with bloodshed, and kindling personal animosity; and by rendering it possible to hold in custody large numbers of captives, whose lives, therefore, can be spared.

THE COMPASS.—The properties of the magnetic needle were not first applied to navigation, as has been thought, byFlavio Gioja, but long before his time, as early as the twelfth century, the compass came into general use. Navigation was no longer confined to the Mediterranean and to maritime coasts. The sailor could push out into the ocean without losing himself on its boundless waste.

PRINTING.—Printing, which had been done to some extent by wooden blocks, was probably first done with movable types (about 1450) byJohn Gutenberg, who was born atMeniz, but who lived long atStrasburg. He was furnished with capital by an associate,Faust, and worked in company with a skillful copyist of manuscripts,Schöffer.Gutenbergbrought the art to such perfection, that in 1456 a complete Latin Bible was printed. Within a short time, printing-presses were set up in all the principal cities of Germany and Italy. As an essential concomitant,linenandcotton papercame into vogue in the room of the costly parchment. Books were no longer confined to the rich. Despite the censorship of the press, thought traveled from city to city and from land to land. It was a sign of a new era, thatMaximilianin Germany andLouis XI. in France founded a postal system.

NEW ROUTE TO INDIA.—The discovery by thePortugueseof the islands ofPorto SantoandMadeira(1419-1420), of theCanary Islandsand of theAzores, was followed by their discovery of the coast ofUpper Guinea, with its gold-dust, ivory, and gums (1445). The Pope, to whom was accorded the right to dispose of the heathen and of newly discovered lands, granted to the Portuguese the possession of these regions, and of whatever discoveries they should make as far as India. FromLower Guinea (Congo),Bartholomew Diazreached the southern point of Africa (1486), which KingJohn II. named theCape of Good Hope. Then, underEmanuel the Great(1495-1521),Vasco da Gamafound the way toEast India, round the Cape, by sailing over the Indian Ocean to the coast ofMalabar, and into the harbor ofCalicut(1498). The Portuguese encountered the resistance of the Mohammedans to their settlement; but by their valor and persistency, especially by the agency of their leadersAlmeidaand the braveAlbuquerque, their trading-posts were established on the coast.

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.—The grand achievement in maritime exploration in this age was the discovery ofAmericabyChristopher Columbus, a native ofGenoa. The conviction that India could be reached by sailing in a westerly direction took possession of his mind. Having sought in vain for the patronage ofJohn II. of Portugal, and having sent his brotherBartholomewto apply for aid fromHenry VII. of England, he was at length furnished with three ships by QueenIsabellaof Castile, to whom Granada had just submitted (1492). Columbus was to have the station of grand admiral and viceroy over the lands to be discovered, with a tenth part of the incomes to be drawn from them, and the rank of a nobleman for himself and his posterity. The story of an open mutiny on his vessels does not rest on sufficient proof: that there were alarm and discontent among the sailors, may well be believed. On the 11th of October,Columbusthought that he discovered a light in the distance. At two o'clock in the morning of Oct. 12, a sailor on thePintaespied the dim outline of the beach, and shouted, "Land, land!" It was an island calledGuanahani, named by Columbus, in honor of Jesus,San Salvador. Its beauty and productiveness excited admiration; but neither here nor on the large islands ofCuba(orJuana) andHayti(Hispaniola), which were discovered soon after, were there found the gold and precious stones which the navigators and their patrons at home so eagerly desired.Columbusbuilt a fort on the island ofHispaniola, and founded a colony. The name ofWest Indieswas applied to the new lands.Columbuslived and died in the belief that the region which he discovered belonged to India. Of an intermediate continent, and of an ocean beyond it, he did not dream. The Pope granted toFerdinandandIsabellaall the newly discovered regions of America, from a line stretching one hundred leagues west of theAzores. AfterwardsFerdinandallowed to the king of Portugal that the line should run three hundred and seventy, instead of one hundred, leagues west of these islands. In two subsequent voyages (1493-1496, 1498-1500),ColumbusdiscoveredJamaicaand the LittleAntilles, theCaribbeanIslands, and finally the mainland at the mouths of the Orinoco (1498). In 1497John Cabot, a Venetian captain living in England, while in quest of a north-west passage to India, touched atCape Breton, and followed the coast ofNorth Americasouthward for a distance of nine hundred miles. Shortly after,Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, employed first bySpainand then byPortugal, explored in several voyages the coast ofSouth America. The circumstance that his full descriptions were published (1504) caused the name ofAmerica, first at the suggestion of the printer, to be attached to the new world.

LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.—On his return from his first voyage,Columbuswas received with distinguished honors by the Spanish sovereigns. But he suffered from plots caused by envy, both on the islands and at court. Once he was sent home in fetters byBobadilla, a commissioner appointed byFerdinand. He was exonerated from blame, but the promises which had been made to him were not fulfilled. A fourth voyage was not attended by the success in discovery which he had hoped for, and the last two years of his life were weary and sad.Isabellahad died; and in 1506 the great explorer, who with all his other virtues combined a sincere piety, followed her to the tomb.

THE PACIFIC.—The spirit of adventure, the hunger for wealth and especially for the precious metals, and zeal for the conversion of the heathen, were the motives which combined in different proportions to set on foot exploring and conquering expeditions to the unknown regions of the West. The exploration of theNorth-Americancoast, begun byJohn Cabot(perhaps also by his son), and the PortugueseCortereal(1501), continued fromLabradortoFlorida. In 1513Balboa, a Spaniard atDarien, fought his way to a height on the Isthmus ofPanama, whence he descried thePacific Ocean. Descending to the shore, and riding into the water up to his thighs, in the name of the king he took possession of the sea. In 1520Magellan, a Portuguese captain, sailed round the southern cape ofAmerica, and over the ocean to which he gave the name ofPacific. He made his way to theEast Indies, but was killed on one of thePhilippine Islands, leaving it to his companions to finish the voyage around the globe. A little later the Spaniards added firstMexico, and thenPeru, to their dominions.

CONQUEST OF MEXICO.—The Spanish conqueror of Mexico, the land of theAztecs, wasHernando Cortes(1485-1547). The principal king in that country wasMontezuma, whose empire was extensive, with numerous cities, and with no inconsiderable advancement in arts and industry. FromSantiago, in 1519, Cortes conducted an expedition composed of seven hundred Spaniards, foundedVera Cruz, where he left a small garrison, subdued the tribe ofTlascalanswho joined him, and was received byMontezumainto the city ofMexico.Cortesmade him a prisoner in his own palace, and seized his capital. The firearms and the horses of the Spaniards struck the natives with dismay. Nevertheless, they made a stout resistance. To add to the difficulties of the shrewd and valiant leader, a Spanish force was sent from the West Indies, underNarvaez, to supplant him. This force he defeated, and captured their chief. In 1520Cortesgained over the Mexicans, atOtumba, a victory which was decisive in its consequences. The city of Mexico wasrecaptured(1521); forMontezumahad been slain by his own people, and the Spaniards driven out.Guatimozin, the new king, was taken prisoner and put to death, and the country was subdued.Cortesput an end to the horrid religious rites of the Mexicans, which included human sacrifices. Becoming an object of jealousy and dread at home, he was recalled (1528). Afterwards he visited the peninsula ofCalifornia, and ruled for a time inMexico, but with diminished authority.

CONQUEST OF PERU.—The conquest ofPeruwas effected byFrancisco Pizarro, andAlmagro, both illiterate adventurers, equally daring withCortes, but more cruel and unscrupulous. ThePeruvianswere of a mild character, prosperous, and not uncivilized, and without the savage religious system of the Mexicans. They had their walled cities and their spacious temples. The empire of theIncas, as the rulers were called, was distracted by a civil war between two brothers, who shared the kingdom.Pizarrocaptured one of them,Atahualpa, and basely put him to death after he had provided the ransom agreed upon, amounting to more than $17,500,000 in gold (1533).PizarrofoundedLima, near the sea-coast (1535).AlmagroandPizarrofell out with each other, and the former was defeated and beheaded. The land and its inhabitants were allotted among the conquerors as the spoils of victory. The horrible oppression of the people excited insurrections. At lengthCharles V.sent outPedro de la Gascaas viceroy (1541), at a time whenGonzalo Pizarro, the last of the family, held sway.Gonzaloperished on the gallows.Gascareduced the government to an orderly system.

THE AMAZON.—Orellena, an officer ofPizarro, in 1541 first descended the riverAmazonto the Atlantic. His fabulous descriptions of an imaginaryEl Dorado, whose capital with its dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen, inflamed other explorers, and prompted to new enterprises. The cupidity of the Spaniards, and their eagerness for knightly warfare, made the New World, with its floral beauty and mineral riches, a most enticing field for adventure. To devout missionaries, to the monastic orders especially, the new regions were not less inviting. They followed in the wake of the Spanish conquerors and viceroys.

REVIVAL OF LEARNING.—The stirring period of invention and of maritime discovery was also the period of "the revival of learning." Italy was the main center and source of this intellectual movement, which gradually spread over the other countries of Western Europe. There was a thirst for a wider range of study and of culture than the predominantly theological writings and training of the Middle Ages afforded. The minds of men turned for stimulus and nutriment to the ancient classical authors.Petrarch, the Italian poet (1304-1374), did much to foster this new spirit. In the fifteenth century the more active intercourse with the Greek Church, and the efforts at union with it, helped to bring into Italy learned Greeks, likeChrysolorasandBessarion, and numerous manuscripts of Greek authors. The fall ofConstantinopleincreased this influx of Greek learning. The new studies were fostered by the Italian princes, who vied with one another in their zeal for collecting the precious literary treasures of antiquity, and in the liberal patronage of the students of classical literature. The manuscripts of the Latin writers, preserved in the monasteries of the West, were likewise eagerly sought for. The most eminent of the patrons of learning were theMediciof Florence.Cosmofounded a library and a Platonic academy. All the writings ofPlatowere translated by one of that philosopher's admiring disciples,Marsilius Ficinus. Dictionaries and grammars, versions and commentaries, for instruction in classical learning, were multiplied. These, with the ancient poets, philosophers, and orators themselves, were diffused far and wide by means of the new art of printing, and from presses, of which theAldine—that ofAldus Minutius—atVenicewas the most famous. "By the side of the Church, which had hitherto held the countries of the West together (though it was unable to do so much longer) there arose a new spiritual influence, which, spreading itself abroad from Italy, became the breath of life for all the more instructed minds in Europe."

CONTEST OF THE NEW AND THE OLD CULTURE.—In Germany, the new learning gained a firm foothold. But there, as elsewhere, theHumanists, as its devotees were called, had a battle to fight with the votaries of the mediæval type of culture, who, largely on theological grounds, objected to the new culture, and were stigmatized as "obscurantists." In Italy, the study of the ancient heathen writers had engendered, or at least been accompanied by, much religious skepticism and indifference. This, however, was not the case in Germany. But the champions of the scholastic method and system, in which logic and divinity, as handled by the schoolmen, were the principal thing, were strenuously averse to the linguistic and literary studies which threatened to supplant them. The advocates of the new studies derided the lack of learning, the barbarous style, and fine-spun distinctions of the schoolmen, who had once been the intellectual masters. The disciples ofAristotleand of the schoolmen still had a strong hold inParis,Cologne, and other universities. But certain universities, likeTübingenandHeidelberg, let in the humanistic studies. In 1502Frederick, the elector of Saxony, founded a university atWittenberg, in which from the outset they were prominent. InEngland, the cause of learning found ardent encouragement, and had able representatives in such men asColet, dean of St. Paul's, who founded St. Paul's School at his own expense; and inThomas More, the author ofUtopia, afterwards lord chancelor underHenry VIII.

REUCHLIN: ULRICH VON HUTTEN.—A leader of humanism in Germany wasJohn Reuchlin(1455-1522), an erudite scholar, who studied Greek at Paris and Basel, mingled withPolitian,Pica de Mirandola, and other famous scholars atFlorence, and wrote a Hebrew as well as a Greek grammar. This distinguished humanist became involved in a controversy with theDominicansofCologne, who wished to burn all the Hebrew literature except the Old Testament. The Humanists all rallied in support of their chief, to whom heresy was imputed, and their success in this wide-spread conflict helped forward their cause.Ulrich von Hutten, one of the young knights who belonged to the literary school, and others of the same class, made effective use, against their illiterate antagonists, of the weapons of satire and ridicule.

ERASMUS.—The prince of the Humanists wasDesiderius Erasmus(1467-1536). No literary man has ever enjoyed a wider fame during his own lifetime. He was not less resplendent for his wit than for his learning. Latin was then the vehicle of intercourse among the educated. In that tongue the books ofErasmuswere written, and they were eagerly read in all the civilized countries. He studied theology inParis; lived for a number of years inEngland, where, in company withMoreandColet, he fostered the new studies; and finally took up his abode atBasel. In early youth, against his will, he had been for a while an inmate of a cloister. The idleness, ignorance, self-indulgence, and artificial austerities, which frequently belonged to the degenerate monasticism of the day, furnished him with engaging themes of satire. But in hisPraise of Folly, and in hisColloquies, the two most diverting of his productions, he lashes the foibles and sins of many other classes, among whom kings and popes are not spared. By such works as his editions of the Church Fathers, and his edition of the Greek Testament, as well as by his multifarious correspondence, he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of culture. If he incurred the hostility of the conservative Churchmen, he still adhered to the Roman communion, and won unbounded applause from the advocates of liberal studies and of practical religious reforms.

LITERATURE IN ITALY.—The first effect of the revival of letters in Italy was to check original production in literature. The charm of the ancient authors who were brought out of their tombs, the belles-lettres studies, and the criticism awakened by them, naturally had this effect for a time. Italy had two great authors in the vernacular, the poetAriosto(1474-1533), andMachiavelli: it had, besides, one famous historian,Guicciardini(1482-1540).

RENAISSANCE OF ART.—This period was not simply an era of grand exploration and discovery, and of the new birth of letters: it was the brilliant dawn of a new era in art. Sculpture and painting broke loose from their subordination to Church architecture. Painting, especially, attained to a far richer development.

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.—In architecture and sculpture, the influence of the antique styles was potent. Under the auspices ofBrunelleschi(1377-1446), thePitti Palaceand other edifices of a like kind had been erected atFlorence. AtRome, Bramante(who died in 1515), and, in particular,Michael Angelo(1475-1564), who was a master in the three arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and a poet as well, were most influential. The great Florentine artistGhiberti(1378-1455), in the bronze gates of the Baptistery, exhibited the perfection of bas-relief. The highest power ofMichael Angelo, as a sculptor, is seen in his statue of Moses at Rome, and in the sepulchers of Julian and Lorenzo de Medici at Florence. A student of his works,Cellini(1500-1571) is one of the men of genius of that day, who, like his master, was eminently successful in different branches of art. In the same period, there were sculptors of high talent in Germany, especially atNuremberg, whereAdam Kraft(1429-1507), andPeter Vischer(1435-1529), whose skill is seen in the bronze tomb ofSebaldus, in the church of that saint, are the most eminent. After the death ofMichael Angelo, in Italy there was a decline in the style of sculpture, which became less noble and more affected.

PAINTING IN ITALY.—The ancients had less influence on the schools of painting than on sculpture. In painting, as we have seen,Giotto(1266-1337), a contemporary of the poetDante, andCimabue(who died about 1302), had led the way. The art of perspective was mastered; and real life, more or less idealized, was the subject of delineation. In Italy, there arose various distinct styles or schools. TheFlorentineschool reached its height of attainment in the majestic works ofMichael Angelo, the frescos of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. TheRomanschool is best seen in thestanzasof the Vatican, byRaphael(1483-1520), and in the ideal harmony and beauty of his Madonnas. Prior to Michael Angelo and Raphael, there was the symbolic religious art of theUmbrianpainters. Of these, the chief wasFra Angelico(1387-1455), the devout monk who transferred to the canvas the tenderness and fervor of his own gentle spirit. TheVenetianschool, with its richness of color, has left splendid examples of its power in the portraits ofTitian(1477-1576), the works ofPaul Veronese(who died in 1588), and the more passionate products of the pencil ofTintoretto(who died in 1594). TheLombardschool has for its representatives the older contemporary ofRaphael,Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519), who combines perfection of outward form with deep spirituality, and by whomThe Last Supperwas painted on the wall of the cloister atMilan; andCorreggio(1494-1534), whose play of tender sensibility, and skill in the contrasts of light and shade in color, are exhibited inThe Night, orWorship of the Magi(atDresden), and in his frescos atParma. The school ofBologna, founded by the threeCaracci, numbers in its ranksGuido Rent(1575-1642), gifted with imagination and sensibility, andSalvator Rosa(1615-1673), who depicted the more wild and somber aspects of nature and of life.

MICHAEL ANGELO AND RAPHAEL.—The two foremost names in the history of Italian art areMichael AngeloandRaphael. "If there is one man who is a more striking representative of the Renaissance than any of his contemporaries, it is Michael Angelo. In him character is on a par with genius. His life of almost a century, and marvelously active, is spotless. As an artist, we can not believe that he can be surpassed. He unites in his wondrous individuality the two master faculties, which are, so to speak, the poles of human nature, whose combination in the same individual creates the sovereign greatness of the Tuscan school,—invention and judgment,—a vast and fiery imagination, directed by a method precise, firm, and safe." Raphael lacks the grandeur and the many-sided capacity of the great master by whom he was much influenced. Raphael "had a nature which converted every thing to beauty." He produced in a short life an astonishing number of works of unequal merit; but to all of them he imparted a peculiar charm, derived from "an instinct for beauty, which was his true genius."

PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS.—In the Netherlands, a school of painting arose under the brothersVan Eyck(1366-1426, 1386-1440). One of them,John, was the first artist to paint in oil. At a later day, a class of painters, of whomRubens(1577-1640) is the most distinguished, followed more the track of the ancients and of the Italian school. These belonged toFlandersandBrabant; while inHollanda school sprang up of a more original and independent cast, in which genius of the highest order was manifested in the person ofRembrandt(1607-1669), its most eminent master.

PAINTING IN GERMANY AND FRANCE.—InGermany, a school marked by peculiarities of its own was represented byHans Holbein(who died in 1543), and byAlbert Dürerthe Nuremberg artist (1471-1528). In Spain,Murillo(1617-1682) combined inspiration with technical skill, and stands on a level with the renowned Italians.Velasquez(1599-1660), an artist of extraordinary power, is most distinguished for his portraits. The French artists mostly followed the Italian styles.Claude Lorraine(1600-1682) was the painter of landscapes that are luminous in sunlight and atmosphere. In England, the humorousHogarth(1697-1764) was much later.

MUSIC.—Music shared in the prosperity of the sister arts. The interest awakened in its improvement paved the way inItalyforPalestrina(1514-1594), whose genius and labors constitute an epoch. InGermany, Lutherbecame one of the most efficient promoters of musical culture in connection with public worship. The great German composers,Bach(1685-1750) andHändel(1685-1759), belong to a subsequent period: they are, however, in some degree the fruit of seed sown earlier.

LITERATURE.—For works on general history, see p. 16. For general histories of particular countries, see p. 359.

On Modern Times. Dyer'sHistory of Modern Europe; Duruy'sHistory of Modern Times[1453-1789]; Lavisse et Rambaud,Histoire Générale, Vol. IV.;The Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I.:The Renaissance; Heeren,Political System of Europe;Historical Treatises(1 vol.); Heeren u. Ukert,Geschichte der europäisch. Staaten(76 vols. 1829 75); T. ARNOLD'SLectures on Modern History; Michelet'sModern History(1 vol.), Yonge'sThree Centuries of Modern History.

On the Age of the Renaissance. Symonds'sRenaissance in Italy(5 vols.); BURCKHARDT'SThe Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance in Italy(2 vols.); REUMONT'SLorenzo de' Medici(2 vols); Roscoe'sLife of Lorenzo de' Medici; VILLARI'SMachiavelli and his Times; Machiavelli,History of Florence; Oliphant,Makers of Florence: Dante', Giotto, Savonarola, and their city(1 vol.); Voigt,Die Wiederbelebung des classischen alterthums(1859); Lanzi,History of Painting(3 vols.); Vasari,Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects; Crowe and Cavalcasselle,History of Painting in North Italy[1300-1500] (2 vols., 1871); Crowe,Handbook of Painting: the German, Flemish and Dutch Schools(2 parts, 1874); Eastlake,Handbook of Painting, the Italian Schools(based onKugler, 2 parts, 1874); Crowe and Cavalcasselle,Life of Titian(2 vols.);Illustrated Biographies of the Great Artists(14 vols.); Mrs. Jameson,Lives of Italian Painters; Grimm,Life of Michael Angelo(2 vols.); Crowe and Cavalcasselle,Life and Works of Raphael; Fergusson,History of Modern Styles of Architecture; RUGE'SGeschichte d. Zeitalters d. Entdeckungen(1 vol. in Oncken's Series); GEIGER'SRenaissance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland(1 vol. in Oncken's Series); Lives of Erasmus, by Le Clerc, Jortin, Knight, Burigny (2 vols.), Froude, Emerton, Drummond (2 vols.); Lives of Columbus, by Irving, Major (1847), Harrisse (1884), Markham (1892), Winsor; PRESCOTT'SHistory of Ferdinand and Isabella, History of the Conquest of Mexico, andHistory of the Conquest of Peru; Robertson,History of America; Beazly,Dawn of Modern Geography(2 vols.); Fiske,Discovery of America(2 vols.); Payne,America(2 vols.); Scebohm'sOxford Reformers; Robinson and Rolfe,Petrarch; Creighton,History of the Papacy during the Reformation(Vols. I.-IV.); Pastor,History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages(3 vols.); Janssen,History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages(8 vols.); Whitcomb,Source Books of the Italian and German Renaissance; Grant,The French Monarchy(2 vols.); Johnson,European History in the Sixteenth Century.

The general stir in men's minds, as indicated in the revival of learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries, was equally manifest in great debates and changes in religion. One important element and fruit of theRenaissanceis here seen. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the nations of Western Europe were all united in one Church, of which the Pope was the acknowledged head. There were differences as to the extent of his proper authority; sects had sprung up at different times; and there had arisen leaders, likeWickliffeandHuss, at war with the prevailing system. Ecclesiastical sedition, however, had been mostly quelled. Yet there existed a great amount of outspoken and latent discontent. First, complaints were loud against maladministration in Church affairs. There were extortions and other abuses that excited disaffection. Secondly, the authority exercised by the Pope was charged with being inconsistent with the rights of civil rulers and of national churches. Thirdly, disputes sprang up, both in regard to various practices deemed objectionable, like prayers for the dead, and the invocation of saints, and also concerning important doctrines, like the doctrine of themassor the Lord's Supper, and the part that belongs to faith in the Christian method of salvation. Out of this ferment arose what is called the Protestant Reformation. TheTeutonicnations generally broke off from the Church of Rome, and renounced their allegiance to the Pope. TheLatinorRomanic nations, for the most part, still adhered to him. As the common idea was that there should be uniformity of belief and worship in a state, civil wars arose on the question which form of belief should dominate.Germanywas desolated for thirty years by a terrible struggle. Yet, in all the conflicts between kingdoms and states in this period, it was plain that political motives, or the desire of national aggrandizement, were commonly strong enough to override religious differences.

When there was some great interest of a political or dynastic sort at stake, those that differed in religion most widely would frequently assist one another. It is in this period that we seeSpain, underCharles V.andPhilip II., reach the acme of its power, and then sink into comparative weakness.

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