The Project Gutenberg eBook ofPetroleum

The Project Gutenberg eBook ofPetroleumThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: PetroleumAuthor: Albert LidgettRelease date: August 16, 2016 [eBook #52825]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Thisfile was produced from images generously made availableby The Internet Archive)*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM ***

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: PetroleumAuthor: Albert LidgettRelease date: August 16, 2016 [eBook #52825]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Thisfile was produced from images generously made availableby The Internet Archive)

Title: Petroleum

Author: Albert Lidgett

Author: Albert Lidgett

Release date: August 16, 2016 [eBook #52825]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Thisfile was produced from images generously made availableby The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM ***

The Wallsend Slipway & Engineering Company, Ltd.WALLSEND-ON-TYNEMARINE ENGINE & BOILER BUILDERS & SHIP REPAIRERSManufacturers of Installations forBURNING LIQUID FUELInstallation mounted on a TrayHorse Powerof Boilers for which Installationshave been supplied by the Company exceeds3,000,000 h.p.Head Office and Works—WALLSEND-ON-TYNETelegraphic Address—“WALL,” NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNELondon Office—30 GREAT ST. HELENS. E C. 3

The Wallsend Slipway & Engineering Company, Ltd.WALLSEND-ON-TYNEMARINE ENGINE & BOILER BUILDERS & SHIP REPAIRERSManufacturers of Installations forBURNING LIQUID FUELInstallation mounted on a TrayHorse Powerof Boilers for which Installationshave been supplied by the Company exceeds3,000,000 h.p.Head Office and Works—WALLSEND-ON-TYNETelegraphic Address—“WALL,” NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNELondon Office—30 GREAT ST. HELENS. E C. 3

ANGLO-MEXICAN PETROLEUM CO., LTD.Exporters and marketers of the products of the Mexican Eagle Oil Co., Ltd., including Mexican Fuel Oil and Diesel Oil, Mexphalte, Fluxphalte, Mexican Eagle Bitumen, Lubricants, Gas Oil, Kerosene and Motor Spirit.EAGLE OIL TRANSPORT COMPANY, LIMITED.Owners of the fleet of modern Oil Tank Steamers engaged in the transport of the above products.BOWRING PETROLEUM COMPANY, LIMITED.Marketing Agents in the United Kingdom for Mex Motor Spirit and Kerosene, etc.Head Offices:16. FINSBURY CIRCUS.—LONDON. E.C. 2—Telephone:LONDON WALL 1200 (Twenty Lines)

ANGLO-MEXICAN PETROLEUM CO., LTD.

Exporters and marketers of the products of the Mexican Eagle Oil Co., Ltd., including Mexican Fuel Oil and Diesel Oil, Mexphalte, Fluxphalte, Mexican Eagle Bitumen, Lubricants, Gas Oil, Kerosene and Motor Spirit.

EAGLE OIL TRANSPORT COMPANY, LIMITED.

Owners of the fleet of modern Oil Tank Steamers engaged in the transport of the above products.

BOWRING PETROLEUM COMPANY, LIMITED.

Marketing Agents in the United Kingdom for Mex Motor Spirit and Kerosene, etc.

Head Offices:16. FINSBURY CIRCUS.—LONDON. E.C. 2—Telephone:LONDON WALL 1200 (Twenty Lines)

Oil Well Supply CoOil and “OILWELL” have grown up together. The oldest and largest manufacturers of well drilling tools.DRILLING PLANT of every descriptionPUMPING OUTFITS for every servicePIPE-LINES and STORAGE TANKSTRADE“OILWELL”MARKDashwood House,LONDON, E.C. 2

Oil Well Supply CoOil and “OILWELL” have grown up together. The oldest and largest manufacturers of well drilling tools.

Oil Well Supply Co

Oil and “OILWELL” have grown up together. The oldest and largest manufacturers of well drilling tools.

DRILLING PLANT of every descriptionPUMPING OUTFITS for every servicePIPE-LINES and STORAGE TANKS

TRADE“OILWELL”MARK

Dashwood House,LONDON, E.C. 2

ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL COMPANY LIMITEDImporters, Refiners and DistributorsREFINED PETROLEUM OILSWHITE ROSE (Water White), ROYAL DAYLIGHT andCROWN DIAMOND—for Household use.ANGLO’S VAPORISING OIL—for Oil Engines, Agricultural Tractors, etc.MOTOR SPIRITPRATT’S AVIATION—Refined to super-excellence for Aeroplanes and Motor Cars.PRATT’S PERFECTION—for all classes of Motor Cars.TAXIBUS—for Commercial Vehicles.ANGLO’S BENZOL—for Motor Cars and Commercial Vehicles.ANGLO’S VICTORY SPIRIT—a perfect Petrol-Benzol blend.FUEL OIL—for Diesel Engines, Furnaces, Ships’ Bunkers, etc.GAS OIL—for Gas-making.LUBRICATING OILS AND GREASES, PARAFFIN WAX AND SCALE.NUJOL—Finest Medicinal Oil.Head Office:36 Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W. 1Branches and Depots throughout the United Kingdom.

ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL COMPANY LIMITED

Importers, Refiners and Distributors

REFINED PETROLEUM OILS

WHITE ROSE (Water White), ROYAL DAYLIGHT andCROWN DIAMOND—for Household use.ANGLO’S VAPORISING OIL—for Oil Engines, Agricultural Tractors, etc.

WHITE ROSE (Water White), ROYAL DAYLIGHT and

CROWN DIAMOND—for Household use.

ANGLO’S VAPORISING OIL—for Oil Engines, Agricultural Tractors, etc.

MOTOR SPIRIT

PRATT’S AVIATION—Refined to super-excellence for Aeroplanes and Motor Cars.PRATT’S PERFECTION—for all classes of Motor Cars.TAXIBUS—for Commercial Vehicles.ANGLO’S BENZOL—for Motor Cars and Commercial Vehicles.ANGLO’S VICTORY SPIRIT—a perfect Petrol-Benzol blend.

PRATT’S AVIATION—Refined to super-excellence for Aeroplanes and Motor Cars.

PRATT’S PERFECTION—for all classes of Motor Cars.

TAXIBUS—for Commercial Vehicles.

ANGLO’S BENZOL—for Motor Cars and Commercial Vehicles.

ANGLO’S VICTORY SPIRIT—a perfect Petrol-Benzol blend.

FUEL OIL—for Diesel Engines, Furnaces, Ships’ Bunkers, etc.

GAS OIL—for Gas-making.

LUBRICATING OILS AND GREASES, PARAFFIN WAX AND SCALE.

NUJOL—Finest Medicinal Oil.

Head Office:36 Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W. 1Branches and Depots throughout the United Kingdom.

The Largest Makers ofOILSTORAGETANKSTanks of Any Size Supplied and Erected Anywhere.WHESSOEFOUNDRYCO., LTD.,DARLINGTON, ENGLANDEstablished 1790]PETROLEUM REFINERY PLANTSTelegrams—London Office:—“WHESSOE, LONDON.”106 CANNON STREET,“WHESSOE, DARLINGTON.”E.C.4

ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL IN DERBYSHIRE(Drilled under Government authority and brought into production in June, 1919)Frontispiece

ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL IN DERBYSHIRE

(Drilled under Government authority and brought into production in June, 1919)

Frontispiece

Although numerous volumes have been written upon petroleum, and some very educational works on this important subject are to be found in technological literature, it is strange that prior to the appearance of this little book, it has been impossible to turn to any publication which deals with this Common Commodity of Commerce in a popular manner.

Of a truth, we to-day live in an age of Oil, for the products of petroleum are inseparable from our daily life. Refined petroleum breathes the breath of power to the internal combustion engine which claims a realm of its own on land and sea, in the air, and under ocean waters; it also gives artificial light to countless millions in all corners of the world under a variety of circumstances and dissimilar conditions, while the wheels of industry unceasingly revolve consequent upon oil lubrication.

And in no sphere of commercial and industrial activity has greater progress been made during the past few decades than in regard to the multiplication in the uses of the products of petroleum. The avenues for advantageous consumption are constantly increasing, and this to such an extent that the production of crude petroleum—enormous though this is—has been outstripped by the demands for the refined product.

In the following pages I have striven to deal with the chief phases of the petroleum industry in a manner which, I have reason to believe, will be acceptable to the general reader, and the fact that the volume iswritten in language free from technicalities, will, I trust, render it particularly interesting to those who would know something of that immense class of commercial products covered by the name “Petroleum.”

Albert Lidgett.

Royal Automobile Club,Pall Mall,London, S.W.1.

Taken from an actual photo of a trip spear with mechanic alongside for comparison of size. This is for 21 inch O.D. drive pipe. We have facilities for producing the heaviest tools required.The OIL WELL ENGINEERING CO., LTD.Works:CHEADLE HEATH, STOCKPORTThe largest Manufacturers of Oil Well Drilling Plant and oil Well Supplies in the British Empire

Taken from an actual photo of a trip spear with mechanic alongside for comparison of size. This is for 21 inch O.D. drive pipe. We have facilities for producing the heaviest tools required.

The OIL WELL ENGINEERING CO., LTD.

Works:

The largest Manufacturers of Oil Well Drilling Plant and oil Well Supplies in the British Empire

THEPETROLEUM TIMESPUBLISHED WEEKLYPRICE 6d.The InternationalPetroleum Journal“The Petroleum Times” is Edited byAlbert Lidgettand is the most influential and widely circulated petroleum journal printed in the United Kingdom.The fact that you are reading this advertisement suggests that it has some interest to you. Then write for a specimen copy which will gladly be sent.Editorial and Publishing Offices:BROAD STREET PLACE,LONDON, E.C.2

THEPETROLEUM TIMES

PUBLISHED WEEKLYPRICE 6d.

The InternationalPetroleum Journal

“The Petroleum Times” is Edited byAlbert Lidgettand is the most influential and widely circulated petroleum journal printed in the United Kingdom.

The fact that you are reading this advertisement suggests that it has some interest to you. Then write for a specimen copy which will gladly be sent.

Editorial and Publishing Offices:

BROAD STREET PLACE,LONDON, E.C.2

PETROLEUM

In dealing with the question of petroleum and its origin, the subject can well be defined under two headings: one, the origin of the word “petroleum”; the other, the origin of the mineral itself. As to the former, this is a matter of historical interest; of the latter, the question is still in doubt—and the doubt becomes even the more doubtful, the more the question is debated.

Let us, therefore, take first the word “petroleum” as we know it to-day. It covers a multitude of products derived from the refining of crude oil, though the word does not suggest any of them. It is quite a generic term, and in a general way represents the whole of that ever-increasing family of hydrocarbons—the refined products of crude oil. There is no doubt that it derives its name from the Latinpetra oleum, which, literally, is rock oil, and equivalents of the name are found in all languages. Even in modern practice we use the word, though not in a specific sense, while our own Government usually refers to “petroleum oil,” which, of course, involves tautology. Crude petroleum is known throughout the oil-fields of the world as denoting the crude oil coming from the wells: then we have petroleum spirit, otherwise the lightest form of refined oil; we have petroleum distillate, designating anilluminating oil; but, “petroleum oil” is, it is to be regretted, generally used as suggesting some form of petroleum product.

Though the petroleum industry—in its commercial sense—only goes back some sixty years, the use of petroleum can be traced to Biblical times, for was it not the great Prophet Elisha who told the widow to “Go, sell the oil and pay thy debts and live”?

Job also speaks of the rock which poured him out rivers of oil; in Maccabees we find that the priests hid the fire which they took from the altar in a deep pit without water; while Nehemiah called the liquid which burst into flame and kindled a great fire by the name “Nephthar, which is as much as to say, a cleansing; but many call it Nephai.” And so, in many parts of the Old as well as in the New Testament, oil is clearly referred to, and, in Biblical times, as much later, was looked upon as a sacred fire.

Many ancient authors make extensive reference to oil, prominent among them being Herodotus, who described the methods adopted at the pits of Kirab for the raising of the oil, which liquid “gives off a very strong odour.”

Petroleum, as known in Biblical times, and as so widely known to-day, occurs in greater or less quantity throughout the world, and it is found in the whole range of strata of the earth’s crust, from the Laurentian rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period, though it is found in commercial quantities almost wholly in the comparatively old Devonian and Carboniferous formations on the one hand or in the various divisions of the comparatively young Tertiary rocks on the other.

The problem of the origin of petroleum has been the subject of considerable scientific controversy for manyyears. Not a few of the leading scientists hold to the theory that petroleum is derived from metallic carbides lying far beneath the porous strata in which the oil is stored by Nature, and that even at the present time the process is in operation. This idea, which may be termed the inorganic theory of petroleum origin, was considered to have received substantial support when it was found that the action of water on the carbides of certain metals resulted in the liberation of hydrocarbons.

The view that petroleum is of organic origin is to-day almost universally accepted, although there is no general agreement either as to whether petroleum is derived from vegetable or animal matter, or as to the forms of life that provided for its genesis. In certain places in the world—notably on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea and also near the Mediterranean—there is some conversion of organic matter into petroleum actually to be seen to-day. It is not difficult, as the late Sir Boverton Redwood, Bart., pointed out in an address before the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1918, to account for the formation of adequate deposits of the necessary material. In the comparatively deep and quiescent water along the margin of the land in past ages, there would be abundant opportunity for the deposition not only of the remains of marine animals and plants, but also of vegetable matter brought down to the coast by the water courses, and the changes which the earth has undergone would result in the burial of these substances under sedimentary mineral matter, the deposits thus formed being ultimately, as the result of further alterations in the earth’s surface, frequently found occupying positions far removed from the sea, and sometimes beneath immense thicknesses of subsequent deposits.

That vegetable matter may be the source of certainpetroleums is an opinion that has found increasing evidence to support it. There are two kinds of vegetable matter which are possible, terrestrial and aquatic, and in the deltaic conditions that characterize so many oil-fields, either could be equally well appealed to as a source of accumulation. The extensive coal and lignite deposits in many geological periods bear eloquent testimony to the presence of carbonaceous matter far in excess of that required to provide proved supplies of petroleum. Every important coal-field demonstrates the fact that vegetable matter can be partially converted into bituminous compounds or hydrocarbons by natural processes. Marsh gases often occur in great quantities in faulted zones in the coal measures, though the bituminous substances found in coal are not true bitumens that dissolve in the usual solvents, while the tars derived from the destructive distillation of coal in no way resemble natural petroleums or the products of oil-shale distillation.

In spite, however, of the outstanding differences between petroleum, oil-shales and coal, I might here point out in favour of the vegetable theory of origin, that actual petroleum and true bitumens have been found in some coals, though in small quantities, while solid paraffins have been extracted by means of pyridine and chloroform. Again, low temperature distillations have yielded petroleum hydrocarbons, all of which appear to indicate that even when coal was the overwhelming product, at certain times and places the conditions were merging into those which could yield petroleum. There is no doubt that each of the various views expressed as to the organic origin of petroleum contains elements of truth, and it is reasonable to assume that a substance so varied in its physical and chemical properties as petroleum has not in all casesbeen created under precisely the same conditions, or from an exactly similar source.

Summing up the whole question of origin, however, the balance of opinion points to its being the result of organic action, and that the petroleum which we now find in the Palaeozoic and Tertiary rocks is substantially of the same geological age as the rocks themselves.

Volumes of technological literature have been written upon this complex question of petroleum origin, and though these may be of intense interest to the student of geology, the brief references which I have already given to the question are sufficient for the purpose of this little publication.

The geographical distribution of petroleum throughout the two hemispheres is no less wide than the geological. The deposits mainly occur along well-defined lines, often associated with the mountain ranges. This is chiefly due to the formation, in the elevatory process, of minor folds which have arrested and collected the oil in richly productive belts.

Ever since petroleum and its products entered the realm of commercial commodities, there has been a ceaseless search throughout the two hemispheres for crude oil, and to-day there are comparatively few countries in the world where the presence of petroleum has not been proved. The ever-expanding uses of petroleum, which in their train have called for a continually increasing demand for crude oil, have given an impetus to the search for commercially productive oil-fields, which, in mining history, has no parallel. On the one hand, we have those important oil-producing regions which embrace enormous regions of the United States, Mexico, Russia, Roumania, the Dutch Indies, India, and Galicia; on the other, we find comparatively recent enterprise which is bringing into prominence the newer oil-producing regions of Egypt, Trinidad, Canada, the Argentine, Algeria, and various parts of Australia and Japan, though in several of these latter mentioned countries, the production of petroleum has been carried on by private means for not only many years, but even for centuries.

It naturally follows that, with the constant withdrawal of large supplies of crude oil from Mother Earth, Nature’s stores must be growing less, and it is not surprising, therefore, to hear, with persistent regularity, alarming rumours of the coming dearth of crude oil. Experts have devoted considerable time and thought in an endeavour to arrive at a conclusion as to the length of time it will take for the withdrawal of practically the whole of the crude oil from the known deposits in the more developedfields: their conclusions, however, are widely different, for while some assert that in the United States, for instance, the known fields will cease to be commercially productive within forty years, others there are who declare that centuries must elapse before the question of a failing supply need call for serious consideration.

But there is one point which must not be overlooked in this connection, and that is the fact that, while thus far very few thoroughly developed oil-fields have shown signs of permanent decay, there are numerous others which, while having already furnished conclusive proof of their productivity, have, for the most part, been but slightly developed. Each passing year registers the incoming of fresh oil-producing areas, while numerous regions in practically every part of the world, giving much promise of the success of ultimate oil developments, are as yet virgin territory.

The cry of possible shortage of supply was, fortunately, made at the opportune moment: it was a word of warning, and was taken to heart especially by those associated with the development of the older producing oil-fields. In these fields—whether we look to America or Russia—there has always been considerable waste of crude oil, mostly in regard to furnishing power for oil-field operations, while the natural gases which exude from the wells themselves, and to which reference is made in another chapter, have, in times past, been allowed to pass uncontrolled into the atmosphere. To-day, however, we see conservation in every direction—thanks to the application of scientific and engineering knowledge, combined with the exercise of care—and there is no doubt that this new factor will tend in a greater degree than may at first be imagined toward the preservation of Nature’s stores of crude oil for unlimited time.

With these few general remarks, let us proceed to briefly survey the principal oil-fields of the world, leaving those which are in the process of development or exploitation to later consideration.

The United States.—In no other country has such continuous progress been recorded in connection with the production of petroleum as in the case of the United States. Quite recently, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that there are no less than 9,000 square miles of oil-bearing territory in the States, yet the petroleum industry was not commercially established until the early sixties of the last century. It was in Pennsylvania that the industry had its birth, and the troubles which beset Drake, the pioneer, have filled many pages of early oil literature. His first well, which produced quite a modest yield of crude oil, was at Titusville, Pa., which spot soon became a thriving town. And as Pennsylvania was the scene of the early successes, it also became the pivot round which the petroleum industry of the States prospered for many years. Until 1885, the Pennsylvanian fields furnished over 98 per cent. of the production of crude oil: then a gradual decline set in, until, at the present time, Pennsylvanian regions do not produce 10 per cent. of the oil output of the United States. No sooner had the petroleum industry been firmly established in Pennsylvania than an active search was made for the precious fluid in various parts of the States, and one by one new oil regions were opened up, but it is interesting to recall the fact that, even in the first developed oil-producing region, no district has been entirely abandoned as exhausted of oil, for to-day wells are being pumped quite close to Drake’s first well and the scene of the birth of the American petroleum industry. In the zenith of its prosperity, the Pennsylvanian field producednearly 5,000,000 tons of crude oil per annum, but to-day the output has fallen off nearly 40 per cent.

When it is mentioned that the output of crude petroleum from the various fields of the United States last year was over 40,000,000 tons, the magnitude of America’s oil industry will at once be apparent. The regions known as the Mid-Continent fields—and which embrace the extensive oil-producing regions of Kansas and Oklahoma—are responsible for a very large portion of this output. Each field has its various “pools,” the most famous of this part, perhaps, being the Cushing pool, which came into prominence but a few years ago. Toward the end of 1914, it was estimated that the daily output of Cushing was 35,000 tons of crude oil. Cushing, like all other prolific oil districts, has many interesting stories associated with its rapid rise as an oil-producing centre, and there are instances on record where, in the course of a few days, land values have increased tenfold.

The rise of the Californian fields, too, is an example of the rapidity with which oil regions can be developed. California’s output in 1919 was, roughly, 120,000,000 barrels of crude oil, or over 14,000,000 tons. It possesses nearly 900 square miles of oil-lands, and though at one time a great difficulty was experienced in disposing of the crude oil production, since it was of a somewhat low grade, the position has now been reversed, and the consumption of petroleum products is greater than the supply. With the improvement of the methods of drilling, and the debut of the rotary system, it has been possible not only to drill to much greater depths, but to considerably reduce the time requisite for drilling a well to the oil sands. Californian records for quick drilling with the rotary machine show that wells have been got down to the producing sands, in some fields nearly 4,000 feet below the surface, within one month.This deep drilling policy, which is now much in vogue among Californian oil operators, has proved the existence at the greater depth of larger volume of oil of far better quality than that met with in the shallow strata, and it is to the discovery and consequent development of the deeper oil horizons that much of California’s recent advance is due.

Though but of small significance, the oil-wells in Summerland, Cal., call for mention for the reason that these are drilled in the sea at quite a distance from the coast. The encroachment of sea-water to the wells themselves is prevented by the continuance of the tubes in the wells to a height above the level of high-water mark, the produced oil being piped to the mainland.

There is no doubt that a wonderful future awaits California in regard to its oil export trade. The Far East is largely drawing upon the State for crude oil for treatment in the Far Eastern refineries: the oil-burning vessels of the Pacific rely upon Californian fuel oil for their supplies, while the opening of the Panama Canal, and the establishment of oil storage depots there, has brought California within easy transport distance of the European markets. During the past few years several cargoes of Californian refined oil have, in fact, come upon the English market.

The oil-fields of Texas have, perhaps, witnessed more “boom” periods than any other oil regions of the States. The Gulf coastal fields which embrace Texas and Louisiana, came into prominence some seventeen years ago, and they were not long in recording an output of over 5,000,000 tons in a single twelve months. The prolific districts of Spindle Top, Sour Lake, Humble, etc., attracted rapid attention, and the speculator in oil lands became immensely rich. But these boom periods cannot be said to be of much real value to the oilindustry, for they are always followed by times of depression, when fortunes are lost almost as quickly as they have been made. To-day, the Gulf coast fields have settled down to a period of steady expansion; systematic development is taking place in every field, and, as in California, the policy of deep drilling has been eminently successful.

THE GLEN POOL—ONE OF AMERICA’S OIL PRODUCING CENTRES

THE GLEN POOL—ONE OF AMERICA’S OIL PRODUCING CENTRES

Space forbids my entering into details respecting the more recently developed or partially exploited fields of America, but it is safe to say that there is scarcely a single State that does not hold out hope for profitable oil development: this is evidenced by the large amounts of new capital which are to-day finding employment in regions which are only commencing their oil-field history.

There is no other oil-producing country in the world where the petroleum industry has reached such a highly organized state as in the United States. Each producing field is connected by means of underground pipe-lines with the trunk pipe-line system, by which it is possible to pump oil from the most distant fields direct to the Atlantic seaboard. Some of the principal lines are hundreds of miles in length. In another chapter I deal with this wonderful system of oil transportation: it is, therefore, unnecessary here to more than mention iten passant. The oil-refining branch of the American petroleum industry is also particularly well organized and up to date, but with this subject, too, I deal at length elsewhere.

A TYPICAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING THE OIL SANDS

A TYPICAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING THE OIL SANDS

Mexico.—The oil-fields of Mexico can claim to have leapt into prominence at a far more rapid rate than any other oil-field of importance in the world. Their development has been phenomenal, and from being practically unknown sixteen years ago, they now rank as the third largest producing regions, coming but nextto the United States and Russia. My object in dealing with the Mexican fields prior to referring to the Russian petroleum industry is that they may be said to form an integral part of the fields of the New Continent, and, from many points of view, are linked up with the petroleum industry of the United States. Indeed, there are several authorities who are now urging that it is to Mexico that the United States Government must look if it is to be in a position to furnish the major portion of the petroleum products required for the markets of the world. Another reason for my dealing with Mexico at the moment is that, when development operations are carried a little further, and when ocean transport facilities are available for adequately dealing with the flood of Mexican petroleum, there is not theslightest doubt that Mexico will rank as the second largest country of petroleum production. Its annual output of crude oil is, approximately, 8,000,000 tons, but even this figure in no way represents the productivity of its prolific oil-producing regions, for according to the official statement of the Mexican Government the production in 1918 represented only 10 per cent. of that possible. The Mexican wells have no parallel in the world, large as have been some of the oil-fountains in Russia.

It will be of great interest here to refer briefly to these, and though it would be impossible to detail all those Mexican wells which have ranked quite outside the limits of ordinary producers, I will touch only upon two of these remarkable oil gushers. They both were drilled on the properties owned by the well-known English firm of Pearsons, the operating company being the “Aguila” (Mexican Eagle) Company. It was in 1906 when the Company commenced active drilling operations in Northern Vera Cruz, and though these were very successful from the start, it was two years later that the famous “Dos Bocas” well came in. A heavy gas pressure developed when the rotary drill was down just over 1,800 feet, and in a few minutes the internal pressure manifested itself by bursting the wire-wrapped hose connected with the drilling apparatus. The oil then commenced to come to the surface in an immense stream, and in twenty minutes the well was beyond control. Fissures began to appear in the ground at considerable distance from the well, and through these came oil and gas. One of these fissures opened directly under the boilers, and though the fires had been drawn, the gas ignited. The position was well-nigh hopeless from the start, the well itself was throwing out an 8-inch column of oil hundreds of feet in the air. Theforce of the volume of oil below ground flung the heavy English drill pipe out of the well, and soon it became impossible to approach within 300 feet of the “mad gusher.” The flames of fire are said to have reached 1,000 feet in height, and inasmuch as all ground round the well had fallen into the cavity caused, they were over 50 feet in diameter. And for 58 days did this gusher burn with all the fury imaginable, its glare being seen far out at sea. Anything approaching an approximate production of oil from this well will never be made: it can safely be recorded, however, that its mad flow of oil ran into many millions of barrels, and it is placed on record that nearly 2,000,000 tons of solid earth were carried away by the force of the oil fromthe well’s mouth, for a crater of nearly 120,000 square metres was formed round the well.

A GUSHER OF THE MEXICAN EAGLE CO. UNDER CONTROL—A DOME BUILT OVER THE MOUTH

A GUSHER OF THE MEXICAN EAGLE CO. UNDER CONTROL—A DOME BUILT OVER THE MOUTH

Toward the end of 1910 another surprise was in store for those in charge of drilling operations for the Company, for it was then that the world famous “Protero del Llano” gusher came in. This well ranks as one of the largest, if not the largest, ever associated with the petroleum industry. Its estimated daily flow was over 125,000 barrels, and within three months the well had produced over 8,000,000 barrels of crude oil.

During November, 1919, a new field at Naranjos was developed by the Mexican Eagle Co., and the first three wells to come into production, commenced to yield over 30,000 tons daily.

It says much for the enterprise of the Pearson (Lord Cowdray) interests that they have been able to build up such a remarkable business in Mexico’s oil industry in so comparatively a short space of time. The production of crude oil, as everyone knows, is but the first link in a long chain of commercial oil operations. To-day, the Mexican Eagle Oil Company owns considerably over 250 miles of pipe-line (mostly of 8-inch capacity), possess several miniature railways, and on the fields of production has bulk oil storage accommodation for several million barrels of crude oil. It has also two large refineries—one at Minatitlan and another at Tampico, which together are capable of handling over 5,000 tons (about 35,000 barrels) of crude oil daily, and turning the same into a complete range of high-grade products—motor spirit, illuminating oils, lubricants, fuel oil, paraffin wax, and an asphalt for road-making.

An interesting equipment of this Company in Mexico is that of its sea-loading pipe-lines at Tuxpam. Here,the water inside the bar is too shallow to allow the gigantic bulk oil-carriers of the Company’s associated concern—the Eagle Oil Transport Company, Ltd.—to come alongside and load. Pipe-lines have accordingly been laid on the bed of the sea reaching out to a loading terminal a mile and a half out at sea. Here, the pipe-lines are connected with the steamers by means of flexible hose, and three or four tank vessels can be loaded simultaneously from the storage tanks on shore. In one recent twelve months alone over 200 oil tankers were so loaded in this way, and on the average, each was loaded and dispatched within 2½ days, for the pipe-line facilities permit of 10,000 tons of oil being pumped into the vessel’s tanks every 24 hours.

INSIDE THE DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL

INSIDE THE DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL

There are several large amalgamations of capitalinterested in the development of the Mexican fields—American and English, while, prior to the war, the Germans had anxious eyes upon this growing industry, and even formulated plans whereby German interests would be largely represented in its future.

While on the subject of the Mexican fields, might I say that no other oil-producing regions have, in the short space of time during which developments have taken place, exercised such an influence upon the international oil situation as has Mexico. This may be traced to the fact that Mexican oil is an admirable liquid fuel, and as such is now in regular use the world over. The vast consuming centres in the South American Continent have seen that, whereas coal is very dear, it is possible to secure almost unlimited supplies of Mexican fuel oil almost at their own doors, while overseas, consequent upon the advent of the fuel oil age, Mexican fuel oil is playing a most important part, and to-day is in great demand for the mercantile fleet.

Russia.—Long before the commercial value of petroleum and its products was established, Baku—the present centre of the Russian petroleum industry—had become famous for its “Eternal Fires,” and it was to that place the Parsees made pilgrimages for over 1,000 years; in fact, centuries before the Russians occupied the Caucasus, the tribes of Persia eagerly sought the oils of Baku for their curative qualities.

The Russian oil-fields have an output of, approximately, 10,000,000 tons annually, or, roughly, 15 per cent. of the world’s total production of crude oil. Since the time when the petroleum industry was placed upon a commercial footing, the Russian fields have produced 230,000,000 tons of petroleum. Enormousthough this quantity is, it has been more than doubled by the United States.

The oil-fields of Baku have gained a distinction for the reason that numerous individual wells have given forth a flood of crude oil which has, with very few exceptions, been unknown in other petroliferous regions. The Baku fields proper embrace the districts of Balakhany, Saboontchi, Romany, and Bibi Eibat: the first three districts stand on a plateau but a few miles from Baku, while Bibi Eibat is located quite near the Caspian Sea, on a bay from which the field takes its name. One remarkable feature of these fields—as showing their prolific oil content—is that the four main oil-producing districts in Baku have an area of less than 4,000 acres. It is in this locality that the Russian petroleum industry, having had its birth, became centred, and though it is known that there are several really promising oil areas in this south-western part of the Caucasus, the fact that the lands belong to the State has been a sufficient stumbling-block to development in the past.

Apart from the Baku fields, the most highly developed oil-field of importance in Russia is that of Grosny, which is situated on the northern slopes of the Caucasian range and connected with the Vladicaucas railway by a branch line. The Grosny field, however, has only been developed during the past fifteen years in what may be called a commercial sense, but its operated area is almost double that of Baku. It has greatly suffered owing to the inadequacy of transport facilities, but in 1919 a project was drafted to build a pipe-line to the Black Sea.

It is not a feature of this little publication that minor regions shall be all enumerated, and thus I may be forgiven if I refer but to one of the several newdistricts which have recently attracted the attention of both oil operators and speculators. I refer to the Maikop fields, which prominently came before the British investing public in 1910, and which were directly responsible for the oil boom of that year. A few months before, a very prolific spouter of oil had been struck in Maikop, which was then quite an agricultural centre, and enormous excitement followed. Land was quickly taken over at ever-increasing prices, and the boom, for which English capital was largely responsible, lasted for several months. There have been many opinions put forward by supposed experts in oil geology for and against the Maikop oil region, but the kindest thing of all that can be said for the district is that, while there was really no justification for the remarkable Maikop oil boom of 1910, there was certainly no reason why public opinion should so rapidly change in regard to its potentialities. I have every reason to believe that some day Maikop will justify the optimistic opinions held for it during the boom, but in the eyes of the English investor the region bears the stamp of fraud, for the simple reason that so many have invested their savings in it, and have been doomed to acute disappointment.

Some millions of English money went into Maikop oil enterprises during that ill-fated oil boom, but a very small percentage of this went to really prove the contents of the lower strata. The fact that the ground was simply “scratched” and condemned because it did not respond with oil fountains, cannot in the slightest affect the ultimate career of the Maikop oil region, the presence of oil in which has been known even from ancient times. Looking back upon that Maikop oil boom, one cannot but express surprise at our gullibility generally: we stake our faith and ourcapital upon what at the best is a sheer gamble, and we seem content if we find that anything approaching 20 per cent. of the money subscribed actually goes into the serious development of the scheme which we fancied. There are a few who grow suddenly rich upon the spoils of such oil booms—I know some of these personally, and to me it has always been a source of keen regret that the State does not exercise something of a rigid control over these publicly invested funds. I cannot here refrain, while on the subject of the Maikop oil boom, just making a remark as to the overrated value which the public generally attach to the reports of many gentlemen looked upon as oil experts. Some remarkable stories are associated with the locking up (and loss) of English moneys in the Maikop boom, but the strangest I know is of a Russian who came to England when the boom was at its height, for the purpose of selling a number of Maikop oil claims. There were many prospective buyers, but it was necessary to possess a report from some supposed “oil expert.” To save time, the seller of the claims drafted what he considered quite an alluring statement, and the next day the report, couched in the same language, bore the “expert’s” signature. And the “wheeze” worked.

But to return to the main subject. Prior to 1870, the crude petroleum in the Baku district, as well as in the minor fields of Russia, was obtained from surface pits, dug by hand, and rarely more than 50 feet deep, and the production was carried away from the mouth of the shaft in leathern bottles. The general arrangements were on the most primitive lines, but, nevertheless, the industry—such as it was then—thrived. Even to-day in several fields in Russia we see the survival of the hand-dug wells, but they are steadily becoming afeature of a page of oil-field history which is almost filled.

It was in 1873 that Robert Nobel went to Baku, and to his enterprise and technical genius a great deal of the subsequent rapid development of the Russian industry is due. Boring by steam power was introduced, and the deeper oil horizons were reached, but, owing to the depth at which the strata became commercially productive, it was necessary to commence the well with a starting diameter of 36-40 inches, so as to ensure the requisite depth being obtained with a workable size of baler—for the Baku crude oils are “baled” from the wells. Upon the question of baling wells, I shall have something to say in another chapter.

Under the improved conditions which were introduced in methods of boring and operating the oil-wells, the industry steadily expanded, the general awakening of boring enterprise being best reflected in the number of oil-wells in operation in subsequent years. For instance, in 1893, the Baku fields could boast of but 458 bore-holes; in 1898, the number had increased to 1,107; in 1903, it was about 2,000; while in 1911, there were over 3,000 bore-holes in the Baku fields. There has been a steady decline in the number of these bore-holes since 1914 due in some part, I assume, to the difficulties of securing the requisite materials for new boring, combined with the enormous increase in the cost of the same. The drilling of the wells in Russia is a very expensive item, for they cost from anything over £10,000 up to £15,000, and usually take a couple of years to drill. But when they are down to the producing strata and commence production, it can be taken for granted that they will continue, providing ordinary care is taken of the well itself, for many years to profitably produce.

The Russian petroleum industry is in the hands of a large number of operating firms, the majority of which work quite independently of each other, and these independent firms are responsible for more than one-half of the total output. The other production of the crude oil, representing certainly over 40 per cent., is in the hands of combines representing the large and middle-class firms, prominent among which we get the firm of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, the “Shell” group, and the General Russian Corporation.

The refining of the crude oil is carried out in Baku, the portion of the town in which this operation takes place being known as Blacktown. It does not belie its name either. At one time these refineries, or at least many of them, were erected in the centre of the town of Baku, or near it, and made it almost uninhabitable by their smoke, smell, and refuse, the latter flowing into the streets and the harbour. A special district was therefore selected, to which all had to remove, and it is this portion of the town which forms “Blacktown” to-day.

One of the great difficulties of the Russian refining industry in its commencement was due to the fact that sulphuric acid, so absolute a necessity in petroleum refining, had to be brought from Europe at great expense, but in 1883, Messrs. Nobel built a factory for its production on the spot from Caucasian pyrites, mined in the neighbourhood of Alexandropol. Other factories for the same purpose and for the regeneration of the acids have since that time been established.

As in other great industries, so in regard to the methods by which the Russian crude oil is transported and to-day handled, great strides forward have been made since the early days. Then the whole of the prevailing conditions were primitive: crude oil, forinstance, was carried from the Baku wells to the refineries in skins and barrels loaded on carts or camels. Messrs. Nobel Brothers were the first to lay a pipe-line to their factory, but later on pipes were laid between the refineries and the harbour, these obvious improvements meeting with fierce resistance on the part of the workpeople. The transport of the refined products from Baku to the consumers was equally difficult. There was then no railway from Baku to Tiflis, and the only way to the Black Sea was thus effectively shut off. On the other hand, the navigation of the Volga was only possible during six months of the year, while the monopoly of water transport on the Caspian Sea imposed high rates on all Baku petroleum products.

Improvements were again due to the enterprise of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, who built the first cistern waggons for transporting oil on the railways, instead of using the old wooden barrels, which were far from satisfactory. In order, too, to open an outlet on the Black Sea, the same firm, in 1889, constructed a pipe-line from Mikhailovo to Kvirili, over the Suram mountains. Now, of course, we have the great pipe-line running from Baku to Batoum, a distance of nearly 560 miles, and which is responsible for the transport of the quantities of Russian oil exported.

But the Russian petroleum industry has always existed more or less under a cloud. The old regime of Government did not attempt to foster and encourage the industry from which it received so much yearly in royalties, for it must be recollected that the Russian State was the chief gainer by the exploitation of the Baku oil lands, owing to the prevalence of the system of royalties. It seemed to be content to leave the industry to its fate, so long as it received therefrom so substantial a sum in royalties, etc. Instances are onrecord where operating firms pay the Government 40 per cent., or even more, of their crude oil production as royalties—payment for the privilege of taking the oil from the ground. Such conditions have been relentlessly imposed, and it is not surprising to find that, operating under this burden of expense, numerous firms find it quite out of the question to earn profits for their shareholders. Several English enterprises come into this category, but the fault is not of their seeking; it is, however, to be regretted, for once an equitable system of payments is arranged, the Russian petroleum industry will expand in a healthy manner, and become a much greater source of revenue to the State than it is at present.

But, apart from the troubles which have to be faced by the Baku oil producers, and which we may call Governmental, the relation between the employers and workpeople is far from being friendly. To-day, of course, it is worse than it was under the old regime of the Tzar, and then it was bad enough. The oil-field workman in Russia is the incarnation of all that is unsatisfactory. He works when he thinks he will, he labours under grievances, many of which are purely imaginary, and then he ventilates his spite upon his masters. The pages of history tell of many a conflict between capital and labour in the Baku oil-fields, with the consequent burning of all that would take fire on the fields, and the damaging of the producing wells by the workpeople. Instances are placed on record where, in a single night, dozens of productive oil-wells, which have taken years to bring into production, have been irreparably damaged by these oil-field workers. Their life, admitted, is nothing to write books upon, and their environments are in some cases of the worst description, rendered no better by the natural aptitudeof the people themselves. But their views upon labour are of the most Utopian imaginable. During recent years, there has been a sort of combination between these operatives, whose socialistic tendencies run high, and less than two years ago they collectively put before the managers of the oil-fields the conditions under which they would in future work. There were nearly 100 different claims detailed, and a few of these are worthy of mention, as showing the appreciation of fairness which is instilled in the mind of the Russian oil-field worker. In the first place, a 50 per cent. increase in wages was desired, this to be retrospective. Holidays had to be paid for by the masters, and when the worker went on strike he had to receive his full pay from the master until such strike was settled. Then the workmen had to be represented on the board of management of the companies, their houses had to be improved by the masters, free railway and tramway accommodation had to be provided, etc. Generally, the demands put forward were distinctly arbitrary, though in many cases very humorous.

Recent events in the conduct of affairs in Russia do not suggest that great improvements may be expected in the near future, either in regard to the attitude of the Government toward the Russian petroleum industry, or to the attitude of the workers to those responsible for oil-field operations. Even before the European War, the Russian petroleum industry was rather on the decline. The only hope that can be expressed at this juncture is that when Russia possesses a stable government, and the country enters upon a period of peaceful progress, the Mining Department will take care that Russia takes its proper position as one of the most important oil-producing countries in the world. But before this comes about, there will have to be a completerevision of the Government’s policy respecting oil royalties. The destruction, however, wrought in Baku towards the end of 1918 will take several years to make good.

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