FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[114]Physiologists have paid much attention to the great sympathetic nerve. They have made, in relation to its uses, many conjectures but few experiments; so that we have not on this subject any very precise notions. The deep situation of the ganglions renders them almost inaccessible, the superior cervical is almost the only one that can be taken out without producing death. M. Dupuy, Professor of the Veterinary School at Alfort, has discovered a method by which he can remove them with ease. We shall now relate some of his observations.“1st Experiment.The first experiment was made on a young and vigorous horse, who had been treated for the glanders; it soon appeared that he was not affected with it, and that it was merely the caries of a tooth that had led to the belief of the existence of the disease.“On the 24th of June his left guttural ganglion was extirpated. Soon after the operation, the eye of that side appeared to be more sunk in its socket, the eyelids were swelled and the pupil contracted.“On the 28th of June the sub lingual ganglion appeared swollen, hard and attached; a discharge of fetid, greyish matter was discovered in the nostril of the same side.“On the 29th of June, the wound suppurated copiously.“From the 30th of June till the 16th of July the wound advanced rapidly towards cicatrization.“From the 18th of July to the 15th of August the animal continued in the same state of health.“On the 15th of August, the right guttural ganglion with a portion of the nerve was removed; this operation was followed by the same phenomena as the preceding, with this difference, that two days after the animal could not swallow water, it run out at the nostrils. There was in fact a communication between the nostrils and mouth from the caries of the back molar tooth, the roots of which were opposite the maxillary sinus, that had an opening into the nostril; the voice was lost.“On the 20th of August, he was much emaciated, with the skin dry and adherent; the cheeks, below the jaw, were constantly moistened with sweat, which had been observed for twelve or fifteen days. The wound of the right side remained fistulous; the skin was covered with scurf, the sheath and scrotum, as well as the hind legs, were oedematous; the animal died. Nothing remarkable was discovered on dissection. Below the sub-occipital foramen the great sympathetic was slightly swelled, in the form of a knot, in the place where the division had been made.”“2d Experiment.On the 26th of April, the right guttural ganglion, with a portion of the nerve, was removed from a sound horse, four and a half years old, strong and in good condition. The ganglion of the left side was first a little mutilated, and the nerve was removed posteriorly to the extent of thirty three centimetres. The animal did not manifest so much pain as might have been expected.“The conjunctiva soon became red and the eyelids partly covered the eyes; the respiration became painful and loud; the pulse was hard, strong and frequent. The animal refused all food, and drank with great difficulty.“This state continued till the 10th of May following. The two wounds were almost healed; the animal eat and drank well; but the hind legs and scrotum were still so much swollen as to interfere with his walking; the conjunctiva remained red and the pupil contracted.“Towards the 13th of May the skin became adherent and covered with scurf; the cutaneous respiration was nearly destroyed.“On the 25th of May, the swelling of the legs and the scrotum became considerable, notwithstanding the frictions with water and turpentine, which were made several times a day since the 13th; he could, with difficulty be got out of the stable to be examined. The pulse retained its hardness and frequency. The dung was hard, black and small.“During the month of June the phenomena were similar to those we have enumerated; the swelling of the scrotum and the legs resisted the tonic and stimulating applications.“On examining the body, the ends of the nerves that had been drawn out were found swollen as in the first horse. Similar results have been obtained in all the other experiments that have been made on this subject. It may be said in conclusion, that the phenomena which appear after the removal of this ganglion, and which do not depend on the operation, are the contraction of the pupil, the redness of the conjunctiva, general emaciation, accompanied with swelling of the legs, and a scurfy eruption which ultimately affects the whole cutaneous surface.”[115]Galvanic experiments have at different times been made on the bodies of those who have been executed. Vassali, Julio and Rossi made a great number of them at Turin; but the piles that were then used were very weak compared with those that are now employed. In the experiments made at Newgate on the body of a criminal, the limbs were violently agitated, the eyes opened and shut, the mouth and the jaws moved in every direction, and the face was thrown into the most frightful convulsions. The last and most complete experiments, that we know of, were made at Glasgow in November 1818 by Dr. Andrew Ure. He used for these experiments a battery composed of two hundred and seventy pair of plates four inches square, with communicating wires, and so arranged that they could be insulated for the purpose of applying the electricity in a more convenient manner.The subject, on whom these experiments were made, was of middle height, about thirty years of age and of an athletic constitution. He was on the gallows almost an hour, and he was not convulsed after being hung, whilst a robber executed at the same time was violently agitated for a considerable time. He was carried to the anatomical theatre of the university, about ten minutes after he was removed from the gallows. His face had a perfectly natural appearance being neither livid nor swollen, and the neck was not dislocated.About five minutes before the arrival of the police officers with the body, the battery was charged with diluted nitro-sulphuric acid, which quickly put it in a state to exert an intense action.1st Experiment.A large incision was made immediately below the occiput. The posterior half of the first vertebra was then removed and the spinal marrow laid bare, at the same time a considerable incision was made in the great glutæus muscle, in order to expose the sciatic nerve. A slight incision was made in the heel; no blood escaped from any part. A wire which communicated with one extremity of the battery was put in contact with the spinal marrow, whilst the other was applied to the sciatic nerve. All the muscles of the body were in an instant agitated with convulsive motions which resembled a violent shuddering. The strongest convulsions were on the left side; at each time of renewing the electric contact by moving the second wire from the haunch to the heel the knee being previously bent, the leg was thrown out with so much force, that it threw down one of the assistants who in vain endeavoured to prevent the extension.2d Experiment.The left phrenic nerve was laid bare towards the external edge of the sterno-thyroideus muscle, three or four inches above the clavicle; as this nerve goes to the diaphragm, and as it communicates with the heart by the eighth pair, it was expected, that by throwing the galvanic fluid through it, the action of respiration would be renewed. In consequence a small incision having been made under the cartilage of the seventh rib, the point of an insulated wire was placed in contact with the diaphragm, whilst the other was applied to the phrenic nerve of the neck. This muscle, the principal agent of respiration, contracted immediately, but with less force than was expected. As I knew by numerous experiments that we could produce the most powerful effects from the galvanic fluid, by leaving the extreme communicating wires perfectly in contact with the parts on which we wished to operate, whilst, in order to complete the electric chain, we carried the end of the wires the length of the plates, into the last trough of one of the poles and immediately plunged the other wire into the last cell of the opposite side, I had recourse to this measure without loss of time. The success was truly astonishing; instantly commenced a strong and laborious respiration. The chest rose and fell; the abdomen was pushed forward and then flattened, and the diaphragm contracted and relaxed. All these motions appeared without interruption as long as I continued the electric excitement.In the opinion of many scientific persons who were witnesses of this scene, this experiment was perhaps the most striking that had ever been made with an electrical apparatus. It should be recollected that during half an hour at least, before this, the body had been nearly exhausted of blood and the spinal marrow had been much lacerated.No pulsation could be perceived either in the heart or at the wrist.3d Experiment.The suborbitar nerve was laid bare at its exit from the suborbitar foramen. One of the conducting wires was applied to the nerve and the other to the heel; the most extraordinary grimaces were produced. All the muscles were put simultaneously in action in a frightful manner; rage, horrour, despair, anguish and frightful smiles united their hideous expression in the face of the assassin. At the sight of this, many of the spectators were obliged to leave the room and one of them fainted.4th Experiment.The last galvanic experiment was made by transmitting the electric fluid from the spinal marrow to the cubital nerve near the elbow; the fingers moved quickly like those of a performer on a violin; one of the assistants who endeavoured to keep the hand shut, found that it opened in spite of his efforts. A wire was applied to a slight incision made at the end of the first finger; the hand had been previously shut; the finger was instantly extended, and, after a convulsive agitation of the arm, the dead man seemed to point his finger at the spectators, some of whom thought that he had come to life.An hour was consumed in these experiments.[116]It is shewn by the beautiful experiments of M. Legallois, that the heart derives the principle of its forces from the spinal marrow, and from the whole spinal marrow, since the destruction of one of its three portions can arrest completely the circulation. The destruction of the spinal marrow does not entirely annihilate the motions of the heart; but it weakens them sufficiently to prevent the circulation, and this weakening is so much the greater, as the portion of spinal marrow destroyed is larger. It may be presumed from this, that notwithstanding the weakening which follows the removal of a part of this marrow, the circulation may still continue if we lessen the sum of the forces which the heart must expend to maintain it. For this it is only necessary to diminish by ligatures on the arteries, the extent of the circle to which the heart distributes the blood. This conjecture is confirmed by experiment. It has been seen, for example, that the destruction of the marrow which is very suddenly fatal in full grown rabbits, ceases to be so, if before doing it the abdominal aorta is tied between the coeliac and the superior mesentric arteries. The application of the same principle to other parts of the body leads to a still more surprising result, it is this, that in order to support life in rabbits of a certain age, after having destroyed the cervical marrow, it is necessary first to cut off the head. They will be completely dead if the marrow be destroyed before they are decapitated; this arises from the fact, that by cutting off the head all this part is taken out of the domain of the circulation, and that by it the heart having need of less force to continue its function, we can weaken it by the destruction of the cervical marrow without its ceasing to perform it.[117]When an animal is thus struck, it is not certain that the concussion has not extended its effects upon a greater or less part of the spinal marrow; and it is not known consequently if the motions of the heart would not cease, even when asphyxia might be prevented by means of artificial respiration.

[114]Physiologists have paid much attention to the great sympathetic nerve. They have made, in relation to its uses, many conjectures but few experiments; so that we have not on this subject any very precise notions. The deep situation of the ganglions renders them almost inaccessible, the superior cervical is almost the only one that can be taken out without producing death. M. Dupuy, Professor of the Veterinary School at Alfort, has discovered a method by which he can remove them with ease. We shall now relate some of his observations.“1st Experiment.The first experiment was made on a young and vigorous horse, who had been treated for the glanders; it soon appeared that he was not affected with it, and that it was merely the caries of a tooth that had led to the belief of the existence of the disease.“On the 24th of June his left guttural ganglion was extirpated. Soon after the operation, the eye of that side appeared to be more sunk in its socket, the eyelids were swelled and the pupil contracted.“On the 28th of June the sub lingual ganglion appeared swollen, hard and attached; a discharge of fetid, greyish matter was discovered in the nostril of the same side.“On the 29th of June, the wound suppurated copiously.“From the 30th of June till the 16th of July the wound advanced rapidly towards cicatrization.“From the 18th of July to the 15th of August the animal continued in the same state of health.“On the 15th of August, the right guttural ganglion with a portion of the nerve was removed; this operation was followed by the same phenomena as the preceding, with this difference, that two days after the animal could not swallow water, it run out at the nostrils. There was in fact a communication between the nostrils and mouth from the caries of the back molar tooth, the roots of which were opposite the maxillary sinus, that had an opening into the nostril; the voice was lost.“On the 20th of August, he was much emaciated, with the skin dry and adherent; the cheeks, below the jaw, were constantly moistened with sweat, which had been observed for twelve or fifteen days. The wound of the right side remained fistulous; the skin was covered with scurf, the sheath and scrotum, as well as the hind legs, were oedematous; the animal died. Nothing remarkable was discovered on dissection. Below the sub-occipital foramen the great sympathetic was slightly swelled, in the form of a knot, in the place where the division had been made.”“2d Experiment.On the 26th of April, the right guttural ganglion, with a portion of the nerve, was removed from a sound horse, four and a half years old, strong and in good condition. The ganglion of the left side was first a little mutilated, and the nerve was removed posteriorly to the extent of thirty three centimetres. The animal did not manifest so much pain as might have been expected.“The conjunctiva soon became red and the eyelids partly covered the eyes; the respiration became painful and loud; the pulse was hard, strong and frequent. The animal refused all food, and drank with great difficulty.“This state continued till the 10th of May following. The two wounds were almost healed; the animal eat and drank well; but the hind legs and scrotum were still so much swollen as to interfere with his walking; the conjunctiva remained red and the pupil contracted.“Towards the 13th of May the skin became adherent and covered with scurf; the cutaneous respiration was nearly destroyed.“On the 25th of May, the swelling of the legs and the scrotum became considerable, notwithstanding the frictions with water and turpentine, which were made several times a day since the 13th; he could, with difficulty be got out of the stable to be examined. The pulse retained its hardness and frequency. The dung was hard, black and small.“During the month of June the phenomena were similar to those we have enumerated; the swelling of the scrotum and the legs resisted the tonic and stimulating applications.“On examining the body, the ends of the nerves that had been drawn out were found swollen as in the first horse. Similar results have been obtained in all the other experiments that have been made on this subject. It may be said in conclusion, that the phenomena which appear after the removal of this ganglion, and which do not depend on the operation, are the contraction of the pupil, the redness of the conjunctiva, general emaciation, accompanied with swelling of the legs, and a scurfy eruption which ultimately affects the whole cutaneous surface.”

“1st Experiment.The first experiment was made on a young and vigorous horse, who had been treated for the glanders; it soon appeared that he was not affected with it, and that it was merely the caries of a tooth that had led to the belief of the existence of the disease.

“On the 24th of June his left guttural ganglion was extirpated. Soon after the operation, the eye of that side appeared to be more sunk in its socket, the eyelids were swelled and the pupil contracted.

“On the 28th of June the sub lingual ganglion appeared swollen, hard and attached; a discharge of fetid, greyish matter was discovered in the nostril of the same side.

“On the 29th of June, the wound suppurated copiously.

“From the 30th of June till the 16th of July the wound advanced rapidly towards cicatrization.

“From the 18th of July to the 15th of August the animal continued in the same state of health.

“On the 15th of August, the right guttural ganglion with a portion of the nerve was removed; this operation was followed by the same phenomena as the preceding, with this difference, that two days after the animal could not swallow water, it run out at the nostrils. There was in fact a communication between the nostrils and mouth from the caries of the back molar tooth, the roots of which were opposite the maxillary sinus, that had an opening into the nostril; the voice was lost.

“On the 20th of August, he was much emaciated, with the skin dry and adherent; the cheeks, below the jaw, were constantly moistened with sweat, which had been observed for twelve or fifteen days. The wound of the right side remained fistulous; the skin was covered with scurf, the sheath and scrotum, as well as the hind legs, were oedematous; the animal died. Nothing remarkable was discovered on dissection. Below the sub-occipital foramen the great sympathetic was slightly swelled, in the form of a knot, in the place where the division had been made.”

“2d Experiment.On the 26th of April, the right guttural ganglion, with a portion of the nerve, was removed from a sound horse, four and a half years old, strong and in good condition. The ganglion of the left side was first a little mutilated, and the nerve was removed posteriorly to the extent of thirty three centimetres. The animal did not manifest so much pain as might have been expected.

“The conjunctiva soon became red and the eyelids partly covered the eyes; the respiration became painful and loud; the pulse was hard, strong and frequent. The animal refused all food, and drank with great difficulty.

“This state continued till the 10th of May following. The two wounds were almost healed; the animal eat and drank well; but the hind legs and scrotum were still so much swollen as to interfere with his walking; the conjunctiva remained red and the pupil contracted.

“Towards the 13th of May the skin became adherent and covered with scurf; the cutaneous respiration was nearly destroyed.

“On the 25th of May, the swelling of the legs and the scrotum became considerable, notwithstanding the frictions with water and turpentine, which were made several times a day since the 13th; he could, with difficulty be got out of the stable to be examined. The pulse retained its hardness and frequency. The dung was hard, black and small.

“During the month of June the phenomena were similar to those we have enumerated; the swelling of the scrotum and the legs resisted the tonic and stimulating applications.

“On examining the body, the ends of the nerves that had been drawn out were found swollen as in the first horse. Similar results have been obtained in all the other experiments that have been made on this subject. It may be said in conclusion, that the phenomena which appear after the removal of this ganglion, and which do not depend on the operation, are the contraction of the pupil, the redness of the conjunctiva, general emaciation, accompanied with swelling of the legs, and a scurfy eruption which ultimately affects the whole cutaneous surface.”

[115]Galvanic experiments have at different times been made on the bodies of those who have been executed. Vassali, Julio and Rossi made a great number of them at Turin; but the piles that were then used were very weak compared with those that are now employed. In the experiments made at Newgate on the body of a criminal, the limbs were violently agitated, the eyes opened and shut, the mouth and the jaws moved in every direction, and the face was thrown into the most frightful convulsions. The last and most complete experiments, that we know of, were made at Glasgow in November 1818 by Dr. Andrew Ure. He used for these experiments a battery composed of two hundred and seventy pair of plates four inches square, with communicating wires, and so arranged that they could be insulated for the purpose of applying the electricity in a more convenient manner.The subject, on whom these experiments were made, was of middle height, about thirty years of age and of an athletic constitution. He was on the gallows almost an hour, and he was not convulsed after being hung, whilst a robber executed at the same time was violently agitated for a considerable time. He was carried to the anatomical theatre of the university, about ten minutes after he was removed from the gallows. His face had a perfectly natural appearance being neither livid nor swollen, and the neck was not dislocated.About five minutes before the arrival of the police officers with the body, the battery was charged with diluted nitro-sulphuric acid, which quickly put it in a state to exert an intense action.1st Experiment.A large incision was made immediately below the occiput. The posterior half of the first vertebra was then removed and the spinal marrow laid bare, at the same time a considerable incision was made in the great glutæus muscle, in order to expose the sciatic nerve. A slight incision was made in the heel; no blood escaped from any part. A wire which communicated with one extremity of the battery was put in contact with the spinal marrow, whilst the other was applied to the sciatic nerve. All the muscles of the body were in an instant agitated with convulsive motions which resembled a violent shuddering. The strongest convulsions were on the left side; at each time of renewing the electric contact by moving the second wire from the haunch to the heel the knee being previously bent, the leg was thrown out with so much force, that it threw down one of the assistants who in vain endeavoured to prevent the extension.2d Experiment.The left phrenic nerve was laid bare towards the external edge of the sterno-thyroideus muscle, three or four inches above the clavicle; as this nerve goes to the diaphragm, and as it communicates with the heart by the eighth pair, it was expected, that by throwing the galvanic fluid through it, the action of respiration would be renewed. In consequence a small incision having been made under the cartilage of the seventh rib, the point of an insulated wire was placed in contact with the diaphragm, whilst the other was applied to the phrenic nerve of the neck. This muscle, the principal agent of respiration, contracted immediately, but with less force than was expected. As I knew by numerous experiments that we could produce the most powerful effects from the galvanic fluid, by leaving the extreme communicating wires perfectly in contact with the parts on which we wished to operate, whilst, in order to complete the electric chain, we carried the end of the wires the length of the plates, into the last trough of one of the poles and immediately plunged the other wire into the last cell of the opposite side, I had recourse to this measure without loss of time. The success was truly astonishing; instantly commenced a strong and laborious respiration. The chest rose and fell; the abdomen was pushed forward and then flattened, and the diaphragm contracted and relaxed. All these motions appeared without interruption as long as I continued the electric excitement.In the opinion of many scientific persons who were witnesses of this scene, this experiment was perhaps the most striking that had ever been made with an electrical apparatus. It should be recollected that during half an hour at least, before this, the body had been nearly exhausted of blood and the spinal marrow had been much lacerated.No pulsation could be perceived either in the heart or at the wrist.3d Experiment.The suborbitar nerve was laid bare at its exit from the suborbitar foramen. One of the conducting wires was applied to the nerve and the other to the heel; the most extraordinary grimaces were produced. All the muscles were put simultaneously in action in a frightful manner; rage, horrour, despair, anguish and frightful smiles united their hideous expression in the face of the assassin. At the sight of this, many of the spectators were obliged to leave the room and one of them fainted.4th Experiment.The last galvanic experiment was made by transmitting the electric fluid from the spinal marrow to the cubital nerve near the elbow; the fingers moved quickly like those of a performer on a violin; one of the assistants who endeavoured to keep the hand shut, found that it opened in spite of his efforts. A wire was applied to a slight incision made at the end of the first finger; the hand had been previously shut; the finger was instantly extended, and, after a convulsive agitation of the arm, the dead man seemed to point his finger at the spectators, some of whom thought that he had come to life.An hour was consumed in these experiments.

The subject, on whom these experiments were made, was of middle height, about thirty years of age and of an athletic constitution. He was on the gallows almost an hour, and he was not convulsed after being hung, whilst a robber executed at the same time was violently agitated for a considerable time. He was carried to the anatomical theatre of the university, about ten minutes after he was removed from the gallows. His face had a perfectly natural appearance being neither livid nor swollen, and the neck was not dislocated.

About five minutes before the arrival of the police officers with the body, the battery was charged with diluted nitro-sulphuric acid, which quickly put it in a state to exert an intense action.

1st Experiment.A large incision was made immediately below the occiput. The posterior half of the first vertebra was then removed and the spinal marrow laid bare, at the same time a considerable incision was made in the great glutæus muscle, in order to expose the sciatic nerve. A slight incision was made in the heel; no blood escaped from any part. A wire which communicated with one extremity of the battery was put in contact with the spinal marrow, whilst the other was applied to the sciatic nerve. All the muscles of the body were in an instant agitated with convulsive motions which resembled a violent shuddering. The strongest convulsions were on the left side; at each time of renewing the electric contact by moving the second wire from the haunch to the heel the knee being previously bent, the leg was thrown out with so much force, that it threw down one of the assistants who in vain endeavoured to prevent the extension.

2d Experiment.The left phrenic nerve was laid bare towards the external edge of the sterno-thyroideus muscle, three or four inches above the clavicle; as this nerve goes to the diaphragm, and as it communicates with the heart by the eighth pair, it was expected, that by throwing the galvanic fluid through it, the action of respiration would be renewed. In consequence a small incision having been made under the cartilage of the seventh rib, the point of an insulated wire was placed in contact with the diaphragm, whilst the other was applied to the phrenic nerve of the neck. This muscle, the principal agent of respiration, contracted immediately, but with less force than was expected. As I knew by numerous experiments that we could produce the most powerful effects from the galvanic fluid, by leaving the extreme communicating wires perfectly in contact with the parts on which we wished to operate, whilst, in order to complete the electric chain, we carried the end of the wires the length of the plates, into the last trough of one of the poles and immediately plunged the other wire into the last cell of the opposite side, I had recourse to this measure without loss of time. The success was truly astonishing; instantly commenced a strong and laborious respiration. The chest rose and fell; the abdomen was pushed forward and then flattened, and the diaphragm contracted and relaxed. All these motions appeared without interruption as long as I continued the electric excitement.

In the opinion of many scientific persons who were witnesses of this scene, this experiment was perhaps the most striking that had ever been made with an electrical apparatus. It should be recollected that during half an hour at least, before this, the body had been nearly exhausted of blood and the spinal marrow had been much lacerated.

No pulsation could be perceived either in the heart or at the wrist.

3d Experiment.The suborbitar nerve was laid bare at its exit from the suborbitar foramen. One of the conducting wires was applied to the nerve and the other to the heel; the most extraordinary grimaces were produced. All the muscles were put simultaneously in action in a frightful manner; rage, horrour, despair, anguish and frightful smiles united their hideous expression in the face of the assassin. At the sight of this, many of the spectators were obliged to leave the room and one of them fainted.

4th Experiment.The last galvanic experiment was made by transmitting the electric fluid from the spinal marrow to the cubital nerve near the elbow; the fingers moved quickly like those of a performer on a violin; one of the assistants who endeavoured to keep the hand shut, found that it opened in spite of his efforts. A wire was applied to a slight incision made at the end of the first finger; the hand had been previously shut; the finger was instantly extended, and, after a convulsive agitation of the arm, the dead man seemed to point his finger at the spectators, some of whom thought that he had come to life.

An hour was consumed in these experiments.

[116]It is shewn by the beautiful experiments of M. Legallois, that the heart derives the principle of its forces from the spinal marrow, and from the whole spinal marrow, since the destruction of one of its three portions can arrest completely the circulation. The destruction of the spinal marrow does not entirely annihilate the motions of the heart; but it weakens them sufficiently to prevent the circulation, and this weakening is so much the greater, as the portion of spinal marrow destroyed is larger. It may be presumed from this, that notwithstanding the weakening which follows the removal of a part of this marrow, the circulation may still continue if we lessen the sum of the forces which the heart must expend to maintain it. For this it is only necessary to diminish by ligatures on the arteries, the extent of the circle to which the heart distributes the blood. This conjecture is confirmed by experiment. It has been seen, for example, that the destruction of the marrow which is very suddenly fatal in full grown rabbits, ceases to be so, if before doing it the abdominal aorta is tied between the coeliac and the superior mesentric arteries. The application of the same principle to other parts of the body leads to a still more surprising result, it is this, that in order to support life in rabbits of a certain age, after having destroyed the cervical marrow, it is necessary first to cut off the head. They will be completely dead if the marrow be destroyed before they are decapitated; this arises from the fact, that by cutting off the head all this part is taken out of the domain of the circulation, and that by it the heart having need of less force to continue its function, we can weaken it by the destruction of the cervical marrow without its ceasing to perform it.

[117]When an animal is thus struck, it is not certain that the concussion has not extended its effects upon a greater or less part of the spinal marrow; and it is not known consequently if the motions of the heart would not cease, even when asphyxia might be prevented by means of artificial respiration.

When the brain dies, the animal life dies, for the functions of this life, either directly or indirectly, have their seat in the brain. It is manifest, that all the operations and affections of the mind, together with sensation, locomotion, and the voice, must be put an end to in such case. The difficulty then respects the functions of the organic life.

We shall here adduce both observation and experiment to prove, that the internal functions are all of them, as well as the action of the heart, withdrawn from the immediate influence of the brain.

1st, There are a number of diseases affecting the brain, which occasion so general a suspension of the animal life, as to leave neither sensation nor voluntary motion, excepting some feeble oscillations of the intercostals and the diaphragm. In this state the individual has lost the half of his existence, but the one half composed of the organic functions, continues in the meanwhile to subsist, and in many cases with energy. This phenomenon is exemplified continually in apoplexy, in concussion of the brain, and extravasation of blood upon its surface.

2dly, During sleep the secretions certainly go on, though Bordeu insists upon the contrary opinion, with the view of proving the influence of the nerves over the glands. During a state of sleep, digestion goes on as usually it does. The exhalations of the body are made with perfect freedom, and often augmented beyond their natural quantity; the process of nutrition continues to be effected, and is probably under such circumstances, increased. There are many proofs in favor of this opinion; but a state of sleep is a state of collapse in the brain. Then, neither is the relaxation of the functions of the internal organs the consequence of a relaxation of action in the brain, nor the death of the former the immediate effect of the death of the latter.

3dly, The sleep of animals, which pass a certain part of the year in a state of torpor, is a very strong proof of the co-existence of a suspension of the cerebral functions, with a permanent action of those of the organic life.[118]

4thly, In the different palsies; in those for instance which affect the lower limbs, and the viscera of the pelvis, in consequence of some concussion or compression of the medulla spinalis, the communication of the paralyzed parts with the brain, is either entirely cut off, or only enfeebled. It is entirely interrupted when all feeling and power of moving have ceased—it is enfeebled, when the one and the other of these properties are only enfeebled. But in these two cases the general and the capillary circulations continue. The exhalations from the cutaneous surface and in the cellular substance, are made as usual; the process of absorption goes on, for without absorption, we should soon see dropsy. The secretions also are effected, for nothing in such sort of palsy is more common than a copious secretion of mucus from the bladder. As for nutrition if it be diminished in energy, the process is certainly never entirely arrested.

5thly, Spasms and convulsions, which proceed from an unnatural energy of the cerebral action, have little influence over the exhalation, secretion, and nutrition of theparts in which they make their appearance. The trouble and excessive agitation of the animal life of such parts, compared with the calm of their organic life, are facts well worthy of remark.

6thly, Fœtuses without heads, in the uterus, possess as active an organic life, as those which have no defect of conformation whatever, and sometimes at the time of birth, are monstrous even in bulk; this circumstance I have frequently had occasion to observe at my amphitheatre; the functions of nutrition then and circulation may take place with activity, though deprived of the influence of the brain:

7thly, In animals, which have no cerebral mass, and in those (the polypes for instance) where not even a nervous system is apparent, these organic processes are admirably well conducted,[119]the greater part of them indeed are common to the vegetable, and the animal.

8thly, If the different proofs, which Bordeu has given of the influence of the brain over the functions be well examined, it will seem that no one of them is decisive. The sudden interruption of the secreted fluid, in consequence of the division of the nerves of the part, would be the only proof which I should be inclined to admit as positive. Now I am not acquainted with any means of making such division with exactness. We have heard much of an experiment of this nature upon the parotids; but the disposition of the nerves distributed to these glands is such, that I have not been even tempted torepeat the experiment. The testicle is better adapted for the attempt, and accordingly without touching the vessels, I divided the spermatic nerves, but an inflammation and a deposit of matter took place in the gland, and with respect to the secretion of the semen, I could not judge of the effect of the division of the nerves. But here this very inflammation coming on without the influence of the brain, appears to me to infer a possibility of the seminal secretion under the same circumstances. In this experiment, the spermatic artery cannot be separated from the plexus which it receives from the great sympathetic, so intricate is the network of these nerves about it; their division however is of little consequence, as they come from the ganglions. It is easy to break off all communication with the brain, by destroying the lumbar fillets of nerves.

I might add a number of other considerations to the above, but here I have to remark that the distinction of the sensibility and contractility into their two kinds is particularly worth attention. In fact, the idea of sensibility in our usual way of seeing things, suggests the idea of the nerves, the nerves again make us think upon the brain, we associate the three ideas, but excepting for the animal life they should not be associated. In the organic life, at least their union is not immediate.

I do not mean to say that the cerebral nerves have no influence whatever over the organic sensibility, but I maintain that such influence is not direct and not of the nature of that which is observed in the animal sensibility.

Many authors have already discovered a number of difficulties resulting from the opinion which makes the nerves the exclusive seat of sensibility, they have even sought for other means of explaining the phenomena of great living bodies. But of its agents we know as littleas we do of its nature, and have no means of elucidating questions of this sort. Let us be contented with analyzing, collecting and comparing facts with seizing their general results; the aggregate of these researches will compose the true theory of the vital powers; the rest is only conjecture: but besides the considerations which I have offered, there is another which manifestly goes to prove that the organic functions are not under the immediate influence of the brain, and this is, that the viscera, which perform such functions do not receive their nerves from the brain but from the ganglions.

This anatomical fact is observable in the liver, the kidney, the spleen, pancreas, intestines, &c. even in the organs of the animal life there are nerves which serve for the external, and nerves which serve for the internal functions. In such the former come directly from the brain, the latter from the ganglions. Thus the ciliary nerves, which come off from the opthalmic ganglion, are those which preside over the secretions and nutrition of the eyes, the optic nerve which is derived from the brain is the nerve of vision.[120]In the same way the olfactory nerves of the pituitary membrane are the agents by which we have the perception of odours, the threads which come off from the ganglions of Mekel, relate only to the organic phenomena of the membranes.

Now the nerves of the ganglions cannot transmit the action of the brain; for we have seen that the nervous system derived from these bodies should be considered as entirely independent of the nervous system of the brain; and that the great sympathetic does not derive its originfrom the brain, from the spinal marrow, or from the nerves of the animal life; but from the ganglions exclusively; this nerve indeed does not exist, it is only the aggregate of so many small nervous systems as there are ganglions, which are the particular centres of the organic life, just in the same way as the brain is the great and only centre of the animal life.

To establish it as a fact that the great sympathetic such as it is understood does not in reality exist, I might add a number of proofs to those, which I have already mentioned. The nervous communications, which are taken for it, are nothing more than accessories to the system of the ganglions; for 1st, These nervous communications, as Cuvier has observed, are not met with in the necks of birds; between the upper cervical and first thoracic ganglion there is no vestige of a sympathetic. In birds then, the upper cervical ganglion is that which in man the opthalmic ganglion, the ganglion of Mekel and others are. This disposition, which is natural in birds, agrees with what I have sometimes observed in the human subject between the first lumbar and the last thoracic ganglions, as well as between the lumbar and sacral ganglions themselves. 2dly, In many instances there are no ganglions in the spot where the pretended sympathetic nerve communicates with the spinal marrow. This may be seen in the human neck, and in the abdomen of fish, but such disposition should be thus regarded. The inferior cervical ganglion furnishes a great branch which ascends to the superior cervical ganglion, and establishes between the two a direct communication; but in ascending it distributes many branches to each of the cervical nerves, which form a secondary communication.

If we reflect on these considerations, together with those which have been already offered, we shall be moreand more convinced—1st, That the great sympathetic is only an assemblage of small nervous systems, having each of them a ganglion for its centre, and all of them independent of each other, though generally communicating with the spinal marrow and between themselves. 2dly, That the nerves belonging to these small systems, cannot be considered as a part of the great nervous system of the animal life. 3dly, That the organs, which are provided exclusively with the nerves, are not under the immediate influence of the brain.

Notwithstanding which, we must not suppose that all the organs which serve for the internal functions, receive their nerves exclusively from the ganglions: many of these organs are furnished from the brain, and yet from experiment, it is found that they are not under the immediate influence of the brain.

As yet we have only observation and reasoning for the basis of the important principle which we are labouring to establish, namely, that the organic functions are not directly put a stop to in consequence of the death of the brain; but experiments upon living animals are not a less evident demonstration of this principle.

1st, I have always observed, that in producing palsy or convulsion, I have never been able to impair in any very sensible or sudden manner, either the exhalation, the absorption, or the nutrition of the convulsed or palsied part.

2dly, It has been for a long time known, that no spasm of the muscular fibres of the stomach, bladder, or intestines, can be produced by irritating the nerves of the ganglions which go to these organs.

3dly, The division of the nerves of the ganglions, will not immediately paralyze the hollow organs. Their vermicular motions continue for a long time after the experiment.

4thly, With respect to the stomach, intestines, bladder and uterus, I have repeated the galvanic experiments which, with respect to the heart, have already been mentioned at length; but never could obtain contractions.[121]

5thly, The same experiments being made upon the organic muscles, and the great sympathetic nerve of a dog, there was no contraction.

6thly, The issue of the latter operation may be easily conceived, according to our manner of regarding things. In fact, the ganglions, which are situated between the gastric organs and the nervous trunk of the chest, might possibly have interrupted the series of the galvanic phenomena. With a view, then, to remove all doubt of this kind, I exposed the nerves, which go from the ganglions immediately to the stomach, bladder and rectum, and in this way galvanised the organs but no contraction appeared to me to be the result of the experiment; at least no contraction, which I could suppose to be the effect of galvanism, for here I cannot too much recommend a proper distinction to be made between that which should be the effect of this fluid, and that which results from the mechanical contact of the metals.

7thly, These experiments are not easily made upon the intestines, on account of the tenuity of their nerves; but as these nerves compose a very perceptible plexus about the mesenteric artery, the intestine may be galvanized by surrounding the artery with one of the metals, while the other is placed under the intestinal tube. This experiment I have made, but could not obtain any sensible result.

8thly, The preceding essays were made upon warm and red-blooded animals. Similar attempts were repeated on cold and red-blooded animals, but with no effect.

9thly, The nerves which immediately supply the gastric organs of the frog, are so delicate as to make it an extremely difficult matter to get them into proper contact with the zinc: a small contraction of the stomach was, however, obtained by Jadelot on operating directly on these nerves; but this contraction was similar, no doubt, to those which I have so frequently observed in other experiments, and not to be compared to the astonishing effects which are observable in the voluntary muscles. I shall conclude, therefore, that with respect to the galvanic phenomena, there exists a wide difference between the muscles of the animal life and those of the organic life.

I have now collected proof enough, I trust, for resolving, with certainty, the question proposed in the above chapter, and for establishing it as a fundamental principle.—1st, That the brain does not directly influence the organs and the functions of the internal life; and 2dly, That, therefore, the interruption of these functions, in case of any great lesion of the brain, is not an immediate effect of such lesion.

Nevertheless, I am far from considering the cerebral action as foreign entirely to the organic life. I only maintain that its influence upon it is indirect, and as yet but little known. I have been somewhat prolix upon this subject; for certainly nothing in medicine is more vague than the sense which is commonly attached to the wordsnervous action,cerebral action, &c. There is never a proper distinction made between that which belongs to one life, and that which is the attribute of the other. Cullen, in particular, may be reproached with having exaggerated the influence of the brain.

The organic life continues to subsist for a certain time, after the apparent death of the individual. There must be some intermediate agents then, the cessation of the action of which, occasions the death of the inward organs. Such agents are chiefly the mechanical organs of respiration. The series of the phenomena are the following:

1st, The cerebral actions are interrupted.—2dly, The mechanical functions of the lungs are put an end to.—3dly, There is an annihilation of their chemical functions.—4thly, The black blood circulates in all the parts.—5thly, The movement of the heart and the action of all the parts is weakened.—6thly, Suspended.

All the inward organs then, die nearly as they do in asphyxia; that is to say—1st, Because they are penetrated by the black blood.—2dly, Because the circulation ceases to communicate that motion which is essential to their life.

Nevertheless, there are many differences between death from asphyxia, and death from lesion of the brain. 1st, The animal life in the latter sort of death, is generally interrupted at the very instant of the shock or blow. In the former it is terminated only in proportion as the black blood penetrates the substance of the brain.—2dly, In the greater number of the asphyxiæ, the circulation does not immediately cease, the blood is only gradually blackened, and continues for some time to be moved onwards by the agitation of such parts as are still under the influence of the brain. On the contrary, in lesion of the brain, the interruption of respiration is sudden; the bloodalso loses its red colour at once: on the other hand, the animal life being suddenly arrested, the organs of volition become immovable on the spot, and are capable no longer of favouring the motion of the blood. This remark is particularly applicable to the breast, the parietes of which facilitate very much the pulmonary circulation, and even the movements of the heart by their rise and fall, for in such alternation of motion consists the true influence which the circulation receives from the respiratory process.

But after all, these two sorts of death may be more or less similar to each other according to the way in which they happen. The differences which I have pointed out are by no means general. Thus, when asphyxia is sudden, as when for instance the air of the lungs is pumped out with a syringe, there are neither livid spots, or fulness of the lungs to be met with. The circulation ceases quickly, and the phenomena of death are such as are observable when the brain is suddenly destroyed.

On the contrary, if the death of the brain be slow, and the process of respiration for a certain time continued, the capillary system of the lungs will be gorged with blood, and the general capillary system be filled also. The circulation in such case will be slow to cease, and the phenomena of death like those of many of the asphyxiæ. Thus the promptitude or slowness of death, proceeding from lesion of the brain, will occasion all the differences.

It has been often a question in what way criminals die, who are hanged. In some, the vertebral column is luxated, and in others, want of respiration is the cause of death.[122]But whenever there is luxation, there is atthe same time asphyxia, and in such case asphyxia is produced, both because the pressure of the cord intercepts the passage of the air, and because the intercostals and diaphragm are paralyzed.

From what I have now said, a comparison may be made between the three kinds of death upon which I have expatiated. This comparison, according to my ideas, is of importance: I shall give some features of it. Generally speaking, there is a greater similarity in the two modes by which the death of the brain, or that of the lungs produces the death of the organs, than between either of these modes, and that, where the death of the heart is followed by the same effect.

But 1st, There is always black blood in the red-blooded system, when death begins either by the brain or the lungs. When the functions of the heart are suddenly suspended, the arterial system contains a portion of red blood only.

2dly, In the two first cases, the circulation continues for awhile; in the third, it is immediately suppressed.

3dly, When the death of the organs is a consequence of the death of the heart, they die, because they cease to receive that excitement, to which they are accustomed from the motion of the blood. When their death is produced by that of the brain or lungs, they die not only because they lose the excitement above-mentioned, but because they are penetrated by a fluid which is incapable of keeping up their actions, &c. The reader will easily finish the parallel which I have thus begun.

In red and cold-blooded animals, the death of the organs succeeds much more slowly to that of the brain, than in red and warm-blooded animals. We cannot assign the reason of this fact, because we do not know the difference of the arterial blood from the venous blood of these animals, nor the effect which is produced on their organs by the contact of either sort of blood with them.

When reptiles remain for a length of time under water, does the arterial blood become black from want of respiration? is the influx of such blood into their organs, pernicious or not?[123]or is there a sufficient quantity of air contained in the large vesicles of the lungs of these animals to oxydate their blood for a length of time, as but little blood is capable of passing into the pulmonaryartery, which is only a branch of the aorta. The latter opinion appears to be confirmed by the experiment of injecting the lungs of a dog with a large quantity of air, in which case the blood of the creature is reddened for a greater length of time. But all these questions, notwithstanding the essays of Goodwyn, require much elucidation.

FOOTNOTES:[118]When two states, which are not perfectly similar, are designated by a common name, it is very difficult, whatever care may be taken to distinguish them, not to apply to one something which exclusively belongs to the other. This is perhaps one of the most frequent sources of our errours. In this case, for example, it does not seem that there is a great inconvenience in designating by the word sleep the state of torpor of certain animals during a part of the year. It is well known that we understand by it altogether a different thing from the sleep, which in warmer seasons of the year, comes on periodically every day; yet in consequence of the identity of the name, we are disposed to admit identity of character and to infer from one respecting the other.[119]What is the circulation of an animal which exhibits no trace of vessels? what inferences can be drawn for man from the mode of nutrition of a polypus? what relation can be established between the complex function which presides in the mammalia over the support of the organs, and the kind of imbibition by means of which the zoophyte is developed and preserved?[120]The external ciliary nerves only come from a ganglion. The internal ciliary ones which have precisely the same distribution and serve also very probably the same uses, come from a cerebral nerve, from the nasal branch of the ophthalmic.[121]The galvanic stimulus usually produces very evident effects upon the contraction of the intestinal tube; these motions are less evident in the stomach than in any other part of the canal; but the same difference is always observed whatever be the stimulus employed.[122]Death does not always take place in the same way. It has been remarked, for example, that those who were hung at Lyons died quicker than those who were hung at Paris. In seeking for the cause of this difference, it was ascertained that in those who were executed at Lyons there was almost always a luxation of the first or the second vertebra, which was owing to a rotatory motion, which the executioner gave to the criminal in throwing him from the scaffold. The death was quick, because it was produced by compression or laceration of the spinal marrow; it was slower in the other case in which it was only the result of asphyxia.[123]It appears by the beautiful experiments of M. Edwards that frogs can live but a very short time in water deprived of air by boiling. Immersed in a small body of water containing air they soon die, no doubt after they have exhausted the air held in solution in the water. They can on the contrary live an indefinite time in this state of immersion, if care be taken to renew the water sufficiently often. The same thing happens, and still more certainly, if they are immersed in running water.It is not by passing the water through the lungs, as the fish does through the branchiæ, that the frog obtains the air held in solution by the water in which he is immersed, the skin is in this case the sole respiratory organ. M. Edwards is satisfied that this mode of respiration is not sufficient to support life, except between certain limits of temperature; a frog immersed in a volume of water which is not changed, continues to live so much the longer as the temperature of this fluid approaches nearer 32°. At this degree frogs are not torpid, as might be supposed, only their motions are slower.As long as the animal immersed in the water remains perfectly alive, which may be known by the vivacity of his motions, it is certain that the respiratory phenomena continue to be performed by him; we see in fact on the membranes in the interstices of the toes, the vessels filled with vermilion blood. When the black colour begins to appear, the animal soon becomes immoveable and insensible.

[118]When two states, which are not perfectly similar, are designated by a common name, it is very difficult, whatever care may be taken to distinguish them, not to apply to one something which exclusively belongs to the other. This is perhaps one of the most frequent sources of our errours. In this case, for example, it does not seem that there is a great inconvenience in designating by the word sleep the state of torpor of certain animals during a part of the year. It is well known that we understand by it altogether a different thing from the sleep, which in warmer seasons of the year, comes on periodically every day; yet in consequence of the identity of the name, we are disposed to admit identity of character and to infer from one respecting the other.

[119]What is the circulation of an animal which exhibits no trace of vessels? what inferences can be drawn for man from the mode of nutrition of a polypus? what relation can be established between the complex function which presides in the mammalia over the support of the organs, and the kind of imbibition by means of which the zoophyte is developed and preserved?

[120]The external ciliary nerves only come from a ganglion. The internal ciliary ones which have precisely the same distribution and serve also very probably the same uses, come from a cerebral nerve, from the nasal branch of the ophthalmic.

[121]The galvanic stimulus usually produces very evident effects upon the contraction of the intestinal tube; these motions are less evident in the stomach than in any other part of the canal; but the same difference is always observed whatever be the stimulus employed.

[122]Death does not always take place in the same way. It has been remarked, for example, that those who were hung at Lyons died quicker than those who were hung at Paris. In seeking for the cause of this difference, it was ascertained that in those who were executed at Lyons there was almost always a luxation of the first or the second vertebra, which was owing to a rotatory motion, which the executioner gave to the criminal in throwing him from the scaffold. The death was quick, because it was produced by compression or laceration of the spinal marrow; it was slower in the other case in which it was only the result of asphyxia.

[123]It appears by the beautiful experiments of M. Edwards that frogs can live but a very short time in water deprived of air by boiling. Immersed in a small body of water containing air they soon die, no doubt after they have exhausted the air held in solution in the water. They can on the contrary live an indefinite time in this state of immersion, if care be taken to renew the water sufficiently often. The same thing happens, and still more certainly, if they are immersed in running water.It is not by passing the water through the lungs, as the fish does through the branchiæ, that the frog obtains the air held in solution by the water in which he is immersed, the skin is in this case the sole respiratory organ. M. Edwards is satisfied that this mode of respiration is not sufficient to support life, except between certain limits of temperature; a frog immersed in a volume of water which is not changed, continues to live so much the longer as the temperature of this fluid approaches nearer 32°. At this degree frogs are not torpid, as might be supposed, only their motions are slower.As long as the animal immersed in the water remains perfectly alive, which may be known by the vivacity of his motions, it is certain that the respiratory phenomena continue to be performed by him; we see in fact on the membranes in the interstices of the toes, the vessels filled with vermilion blood. When the black colour begins to appear, the animal soon becomes immoveable and insensible.

It is not by passing the water through the lungs, as the fish does through the branchiæ, that the frog obtains the air held in solution by the water in which he is immersed, the skin is in this case the sole respiratory organ. M. Edwards is satisfied that this mode of respiration is not sufficient to support life, except between certain limits of temperature; a frog immersed in a volume of water which is not changed, continues to live so much the longer as the temperature of this fluid approaches nearer 32°. At this degree frogs are not torpid, as might be supposed, only their motions are slower.

As long as the animal immersed in the water remains perfectly alive, which may be known by the vivacity of his motions, it is certain that the respiratory phenomena continue to be performed by him; we see in fact on the membranes in the interstices of the toes, the vessels filled with vermilion blood. When the black colour begins to appear, the animal soon becomes immoveable and insensible.

From the consideration of what has been said in the preceding chapter, nothing can be more easy than to form an accurate idea of the manner in which the phenomena of general death, commencing by the brain, are concatenated. The series is as follows:

1st, The cerebral action is annihilated. 2dly, There is a sudden cessation of sensation and voluntary motion. 3dly, A simultaneous paralysis of the intercostals and diaphragm. 4thly, An interruption of the mechanical phenomena of respiration and the voice. 5thly, An annihilation of the chemical phenomena of the lungs. 6thly, A passage of black blood into the arteries. 7thly, A slowness of circulation owing to the influx of such blood into the arteries, and the absolute immobility of all the parts, of the intercostals and diaphragm in particular. 8thly, The heart dies and the general circulation ceases. 9thly, The organic life vanishes. 10thly, The animal heat, which is the product of all the functions, disappears, 11thly, The white organs die.

Though in this kind of death, as well as in the two preceding kinds, the functions are suddenly annihilated; the parts retain, for a certain time, a number of the properties of life. The organic sensibility and contractility, continue for some time, to be manifest in the muscles of the two lives; and in those of the animal life, the susceptibility of being affected by the galvanic fluid is very great in the muscles of the animal life.

This permanence of the organic properties, is nearly the same in every case; the only cause which affects it, is the slowness with which the phenomena of death have succeeded each other. In every case where their duration has been the same, whatever may have been the cause of death, experiments instituted upon these properties, are attended with similar results; for it is evident that concussion of the brain, luxation of the vertebræ, the section of the spinal marrow, apoplexy, compression of the brain, or inflammation, are all of them causes which are attended with a like effect.

The same, however, is not the case with respect to the asphyxiæ produced by the different gases. We have shown the reason of this in the more or less deleterious nature of the gases which produce asphyxiæ.

The state of the lungs also, is very various in the bodies of persons who have died from lesions of the brain. This organ is sometimes gorged and sometimes almost empty: it shews, however, whether the death of the individual has been sudden or gradual. The same indication may be had from the state of the exterior surfaces.

The death, which is the consequence of disease, commences much more rarely in the brain, than in the lungs. Nevertheless, in certain paroxysms of acute fever, the blood is violently carried to the head, and is the occasionof death. The concatenation of its phenomena, are then the same as take place in sudden death.

There are a great number of other cases besides those of fever, where the commencement of death may be in the brain, though the brain itself may not have been previously affected by the disease. In these cases, the state of the lungs is very various; but little can be learnt from it with respect to the nature of the disease. It is only an indication of the manner in which the functions have been terminated.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTEFootnote [28]is referenced fromFootnote [27]not from the text itself.Footnote [101]is referenced fromFootnote [100].Footnote [108]is referenced fromFootnote [107].Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, air-cells, air cells; economy, œconomy; no-wise, nowise, no wise; errors, errours; mechanicians; contractility; hemorrhagy; hebetate.In the main text:Pg 17, ‘not of the mattter’ replaced by ‘not of the matter’.Pg 20, ‘its accessaries’ replaced by ‘its accessories’.Pg 25, ‘TH TWO LIVES’ replaced by ‘THE TWO LIVES’.Pg 33, ‘make a differerence’ replaced by ‘make a difference’.Pg 36, ‘at the expence’ replaced by ‘at the expense’.Pg 58, ‘nearly analagous’ replaced by ‘nearly analogous’.Pg 59, ‘sudden alteratian’ replaced by ‘sudden alteration’.Pg 69, ‘whick Authors’ replaced by ‘which Authors’.Pg 79, ‘it is succeptible’ replaced by ‘it is susceptible’.Pg 144, ‘at utterence’ replaced by ‘at utterance’.Pg 149, ‘then the nutrive’ replaced by ‘then the nutritive’.Pg 173, ‘physiolgist. Now’ replaced by ‘physiologist. Now’.Pg 173, ‘is ther esult’ replaced by ‘is the result’.Pg 176, ‘the body ensuses’ replaced by ‘the body ensues’.Pg 196, ‘which its practicles’ replaced by ‘which its particles’.Pg 213, ‘cut the treachea’ replaced by ‘cut the trachea’.Pg 235, ‘is propogated from’ replaced by ‘is propagated from’.Pg 236, ‘Ex-riments upon’ replaced by ‘Experiments upon’.Pg 240, ‘to the concominant’ replaced by ‘to the concomitant’.Pg 248, ‘the venons system’ replaced by ‘the venous system’.Pg 252, ‘when the functious’ replaced by ‘when the functious’.Pg 258, ‘swells and cantracts’ replaced by ‘swells and contracts’.Pg 259, ‘pipe, then when’ replaced by ‘pipe, than when’.Pg 261, ‘that livid tin’ replaced by ‘that livid tint’.Pg 278, ‘in sulphureted’ replaced by ‘in sulphurated’.Pg 278, ‘azot, in pure’ replaced by ‘azote, in pure’.Pg 293, ‘extensive hemorhagy’ replaced by ‘extensive hemorrhagy’.Pg 293, ‘have began in’ replaced by ‘has begun in’.Pg 310, ‘I was authorzied’ replaced by ‘I was authorized’.Pg 333, ‘of accute fever’ replaced by ‘of acute fever’.In the Footnotes:FN 4(Footnote [4] referenced from)pg 12, ‘the maunmalia’ replaced by ‘the mammalia’.FN 5pg 17, ‘opake colour’ replaced by ‘opaque colour’.FN 5pg 17, ‘cogulum of milk’ replaced by ‘coagulum of milk’.FN 13pg 43, ‘In somnambulition’ replaced by ‘In somnambulism’.FN 15pg 57, ‘perfect iudifference’ replaced by ‘perfect indifference’.FN 27pg 90, ‘and peritoreum’ replaced by ‘and peritoneum’.FN 31pg 105, ‘the duoderum’ replaced by ‘the duodenum’.FN 31pg 105, ‘as the ileo-coecal’ replaced by ‘as the ileo-cecal’.FN 34pg 118, ‘to the indiosyncrasy’ replaced by ‘to the idiosyncrasy’.FN 76pg 206, ‘name of hypocondria’ replaced by ‘name of hypochondria’.FN 90pg 236, ‘vena porta, as’ replaced by ‘vena portæ, as’.FN 92pg 241, ‘soon ofter grew’ replaced by ‘soon after grew’.FN 92pg 241, ‘the plantive cries’ replaced by ‘the plaintive cries’.FN 103pg 281, ‘prot-phosphuretted’ replaced by ‘proto-phosphuretted’.FN 115pg 311, ‘of middle heighth’ replaced by ‘of middle height’.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Footnote [28]is referenced fromFootnote [27]not from the text itself.Footnote [101]is referenced fromFootnote [100].Footnote [108]is referenced fromFootnote [107].

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, air-cells, air cells; economy, œconomy; no-wise, nowise, no wise; errors, errours; mechanicians; contractility; hemorrhagy; hebetate.

In the main text:Pg 17, ‘not of the mattter’ replaced by ‘not of the matter’.Pg 20, ‘its accessaries’ replaced by ‘its accessories’.Pg 25, ‘TH TWO LIVES’ replaced by ‘THE TWO LIVES’.Pg 33, ‘make a differerence’ replaced by ‘make a difference’.Pg 36, ‘at the expence’ replaced by ‘at the expense’.Pg 58, ‘nearly analagous’ replaced by ‘nearly analogous’.Pg 59, ‘sudden alteratian’ replaced by ‘sudden alteration’.Pg 69, ‘whick Authors’ replaced by ‘which Authors’.Pg 79, ‘it is succeptible’ replaced by ‘it is susceptible’.Pg 144, ‘at utterence’ replaced by ‘at utterance’.Pg 149, ‘then the nutrive’ replaced by ‘then the nutritive’.Pg 173, ‘physiolgist. Now’ replaced by ‘physiologist. Now’.Pg 173, ‘is ther esult’ replaced by ‘is the result’.Pg 176, ‘the body ensuses’ replaced by ‘the body ensues’.Pg 196, ‘which its practicles’ replaced by ‘which its particles’.Pg 213, ‘cut the treachea’ replaced by ‘cut the trachea’.Pg 235, ‘is propogated from’ replaced by ‘is propagated from’.Pg 236, ‘Ex-riments upon’ replaced by ‘Experiments upon’.Pg 240, ‘to the concominant’ replaced by ‘to the concomitant’.Pg 248, ‘the venons system’ replaced by ‘the venous system’.Pg 252, ‘when the functious’ replaced by ‘when the functious’.Pg 258, ‘swells and cantracts’ replaced by ‘swells and contracts’.Pg 259, ‘pipe, then when’ replaced by ‘pipe, than when’.Pg 261, ‘that livid tin’ replaced by ‘that livid tint’.Pg 278, ‘in sulphureted’ replaced by ‘in sulphurated’.Pg 278, ‘azot, in pure’ replaced by ‘azote, in pure’.Pg 293, ‘extensive hemorhagy’ replaced by ‘extensive hemorrhagy’.Pg 293, ‘have began in’ replaced by ‘has begun in’.Pg 310, ‘I was authorzied’ replaced by ‘I was authorized’.Pg 333, ‘of accute fever’ replaced by ‘of acute fever’.In the Footnotes:FN 4(Footnote [4] referenced from)pg 12, ‘the maunmalia’ replaced by ‘the mammalia’.FN 5pg 17, ‘opake colour’ replaced by ‘opaque colour’.FN 5pg 17, ‘cogulum of milk’ replaced by ‘coagulum of milk’.FN 13pg 43, ‘In somnambulition’ replaced by ‘In somnambulism’.FN 15pg 57, ‘perfect iudifference’ replaced by ‘perfect indifference’.FN 27pg 90, ‘and peritoreum’ replaced by ‘and peritoneum’.FN 31pg 105, ‘the duoderum’ replaced by ‘the duodenum’.FN 31pg 105, ‘as the ileo-coecal’ replaced by ‘as the ileo-cecal’.FN 34pg 118, ‘to the indiosyncrasy’ replaced by ‘to the idiosyncrasy’.FN 76pg 206, ‘name of hypocondria’ replaced by ‘name of hypochondria’.FN 90pg 236, ‘vena porta, as’ replaced by ‘vena portæ, as’.FN 92pg 241, ‘soon ofter grew’ replaced by ‘soon after grew’.FN 92pg 241, ‘the plantive cries’ replaced by ‘the plaintive cries’.FN 103pg 281, ‘prot-phosphuretted’ replaced by ‘proto-phosphuretted’.FN 115pg 311, ‘of middle heighth’ replaced by ‘of middle height’.

Back to Index Next