Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken wordthoughthere are only two sounds, thethand theo;uandgandhare silent. There are a great many words in the English language which contain these silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent letters dropped; for example, you will findthoughspelledtho,throughspelledthru.
This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters.
In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words containing silent letters.
In a number of words you will findeapronounced as shorte. The board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop thea, which is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, words likeheadwould be spelledhed. Note the spelling of the following words in whicheais pronounced as shorteand theais silent.
Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth.
We have a number of words ending inoughin which theghis silent.
1. In some of these words theouis pronounced likeow. We have already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no longer useplough, but write itplow.
2. In other words ending withoughtheughis silent and the words end with a longosound, as inthough. Many writers have dropped the silent letters ugh and spell this simplytho.
3. A few other words ending withoughend with ausound and those who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped theoughand used simplyu, as inthrough; many writers spell it simplythru. Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters:
Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though.
We have a number of words ending inmnin which thenis silent. Note the spelling of the following words:
Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn.
We have a number of words containing a silentb. Notice the spelling of the following words:
Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb.
A number of words end with silentueafterg. Some writers omit the ue and probably after a while we will drop this silentue, but you will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as:
Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue.
We have a number of words ending withghin which theghhas the sound off, as in the following words:
Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough.
Dear Comrade:
We have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are going to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these lessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review. Perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have not thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for which you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our sentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us.
Thereisa science in language as in everything else, and language, after all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its development that they have given this power a special name. They speak of the "Genius of the Language" as though there was some spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language.
There is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and free expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private profit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius of the people has had fuller sway.
The educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change or conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final arbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts the final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius might do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of the people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of the people have put stumbling blocks,—laws, conventions, morals, customs,—in the way of the people.
Their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us rejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life, determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in all life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to rule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words alone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free within, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each become a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion—one of those who make straight the path for the future.
Yours for the Revolution,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
400.Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence is the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build our sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that are used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of speech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight parts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth part of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a complete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions;nouns,pronouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositionsandconjunctions.
401.You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just three kinds of sentences. Theassertive, theinterrogativeand theimperative; or in other words, sentences which state afact, ask aquestionor give acommand. We also found that these three kinds of sentences could all be expressed inexclamatoryform.
402.Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of speech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis. Sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different parts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and the predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or separate them from one another.
These parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The elements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in forming the sentence.
403.Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our sentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them. Let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For example:
There are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple sentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or the pronoun and the verb. We might say instead ofMen work,They work, and have a complete sentence.
In the sentenceMen work,menis the subject andworkis the predicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements in a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and these two parts can express a thought without the help of other elements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers.
You remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective. So we add the adjectivebusy, and we have:
Our simple subject is still the nounmen, but the complete subject is the noun with its modifier,busy men. We may add other adjectives and say:
Here we have our simple subjectmenmodified by the adjectives,the,busyandindustrious, and also by the adjective phrase,with families. So the complete subject of the sentence now is,the busy, industrious men with families.
Our predicate is still the single verbwork. Let us now enlarge the predicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so we may say:
Our simple predicate,workis now enlarged. It is modified by the adverb,hardand the adverb phrase,in the factory. So our complete predicate is now,work hard in the factory.
404.These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences.
A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.
405.A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and one predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate may be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single thought. For example:The boys sing.This is a simple statement with a simple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say:The boys sing and play.We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate,sing and play.
Now we may make a compound subject, and say,The boys and girls sing and play, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are asserted of both subjects. So,The boys and girls sing and play, is a simple sentence.
If we say,The boys sing and the girls play, we have a compound sentence, composed of two simple sentences,The boys sing,The girls play.
If we say,The boys sing while the girls play, we have a complex sentence formed of the simple sentence,The boys sing, and the dependent clause,while the girls play.
406.Now let us sum up our definitions:
Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.
The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.
The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place of a noun, without modifiers.
The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.
The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of its modifiers.
The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all of its modifiers.
A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.
A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.
A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.
In the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed initalics. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and all of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate.
Note carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so as to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example:Ships sail.This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers and we have, as follows:
407.You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these sentences have been complete verbs ashang,grow,runs,fade, etc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an object or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified by an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers you still have complete sense.
In any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete sentences. For example:
Here, the adverb phrase,in the air, may be omitted and still we have complete sense, thus:
408.The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or complement to complete their meaning.
Incomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that expressactionand those that expressstateorcondition.
An incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element which enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb. For example:
In order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the incomplete verbmakes. To say,The busy man makes, is not enough. We must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb,makes. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names thethingthatreceivesthe action and the other names thethingindirectlyaffectedby the action. For example:
409.Coatis thedirectobject of the verbmade. But we have another object in the pronounhim. We do not mean that the tailor madehim, but that the tailor made him acoat.Coatis the direct object andhimis the indirect object. The indirect object is always placed before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the object of the prepositiontoorfor. As for example, this sentence might be rewritten to read,The tailor made a coat for him. In this sentence,himis not the indirect object of the verb, but is the object of the prepositionfor.
410.The direct object of the verb always answers the questionwhat?As for example, the tailor madewhat?—a coat. The indirect object of the verb names the person or thingtoorforwhich the act is done,—the tailor made a coat for whom?—forhim.
The direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate of the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb phrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example:
The complete predicate is,gladly made him a coat for the occasion, formed of the verbmade, the direct object,coat, the indirect objecthim, the adverb modifier,gladly, and the phrase modifier,for the occasion.
In the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line and the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics.
In the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the complete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect objects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct objects are in italics.
411.We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a complement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs. The number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verbbe; also,like,appear,look,feel,sound,smell,become,seem, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a phrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used in the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called a predicate complement. For example:
Here we have a noun,hero, used as a predicate complement after the copulative verb,is, to describe the nounman.
In this sentence, we have an adjective,class-conscious, in the predicate to modify the subject,man. It is connected with the subject by the copulative verbis.
Here we have a phrase,in earnest, used in the predicate to modify the nounman, and connected with the subject by the copulative verbis.
412.So in the predicate with the copulative verbs—incomplete verbs which express state or condition—we may use a noun or an adjective or a phrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate, then, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its modifiers. For example:
In this sentence,Grantis the complete subject,was the most famous general of the Civil waris the complete predicate.Wasis the copulative verb;generalis the noun used as the predicate complement;theandfamousare adjectives modifyinggeneral;mostis an adverb modifyingthe adjectivefamous, and,of the Civil waris an adjective phrase modifyinggeneral, so our complete predicate is,was the most famous general of the Civil war.
When an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have modifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example:
Here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement,braveandloyal.Braveis modified by the adverbvery, andloyalis modified by the adverb phrase,to his class. The complete predicate is,is very brave and loyal to his class.
When we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have modifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example:
In this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement,in the fightandin earnest. The second phrase,in earnestis modified by the adverbdeeply. The complete predicate is,is in the fight and deeply in earnest.
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers used as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences analyzed above:
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives and their modifiers used in the predicate complement.
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the predicate complement.
413.Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have used the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to expresspastandpresenttime. In expressing other time forms we use verb phrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the different time forms of the verb.
414.Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words may separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your sentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out the verb phrase. For example:
Here the adverbs,veryandsoon, separatefindfrom its auxiliaryshall. The verb phrase is,shall find. The negativenotvery often separates the words forming a verb phrase. For example:
In this sentence,will gois the verb phrase.
When we use the auxiliary verbdoto express emphasis, and also the negativenot,notcomes between the auxiliary verbdo, and the principal verb. For example:
In this sentence,do obeyis the verb phrase.
In interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example:
Youis the subject of this interrogative sentence andwill gois the verb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and part of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in asking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example:
In this sentence,workis the subject of the sentence andwill be commencedis the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive form, it would be:
By paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated by other parts of speech.
415.The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of which it is composed.
A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or command.
A simple sentence contains only words and phrases.It does not contain dependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are:
In the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all the modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of speech of each word in the sentence.
Sentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple sentences.
Sentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are complex.
Sentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound.
No. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate.
No. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause.
No. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis.
No. 27 consists of two dependent clauses.
In the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses.
Among the common suffixes in English are the suffixesorander. These suffixes meanone whoorthat which. For example,builder, one who builds;actor, one who acts;heater, that which heats. But we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffixororerto form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be given, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions:
To the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffixer. For example,writer,boxer,singer, etc. To the longer and less common words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the suffixor. For example,legislator,conqueror, etc.
There are a number of words in the English likehonor, in which the last syllable used to be spelledourinstead ofor. You will probably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of spelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the endingoris being used instead ofour. There are also a number of words in our language likecenter, which used to be spelled withreinstead ofer. Thereending is not used any more, although you may run across it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such words as these iser. There are a few words, however, liketimbre(a musical term) andacre, which are still properly spelled with thereending.
The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, contain words from which derivatives can be formed by addingeroror. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have added the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you may find in your reading spelled with theourending. The list for Saturday contains words which you may find spelled with thereending instead of theer.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Dear Comrade:
In logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to the facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former method. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and from these facts they reach their conclusions.
This was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He analyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he reached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago among superstitious people, they would probably have called him a prophet.
This mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching conclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what we are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences, finding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the sentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really studied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences gives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the sentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in its expression.
So do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence building. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of mind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself more clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You will see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not confuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage to find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to write and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical expression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean.
Now, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So practice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an interesting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you are tremendously worth while.
Nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for ourselves and to put that thought into words.
Yours for Freedom,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
416.We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the complete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used as the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is the subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject is a noun. As for example:
Note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which is the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or modifiers of its modifiers.
But in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be used as the subject of a sentence.
417.A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence, for the pronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be modified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example:
"Out of the night that covers me,Black as the pit from pole to pole,Ithank whatever Gods there beFor my unconquerable soul."
"Out of the night that covers me,
Black as the pit from pole to pole,
Ithank whatever Gods there be
For my unconquerable soul."
In all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the sentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete subject of the sentence.
418.The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.For example:
Here the present participletravelingis used as a noun, subject of the sentence.
Participle phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example:
In these sentences,being preparedandhaving signedare participle phrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbswill saveandwas. Note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following sentences:
Note that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form of the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above:
Notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as, makingshoes, his having joined hiscomrades. The participle still retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The entire phrases,His having joined his comrades, and,Making shoes, are the subjects of the sentences.
419.The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as the subject of the sentence:
420.An adjective can also be used as the subject.You remember in our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a noun, as for example:
Here the adjectivestrongis used as a noun, subject of the sentence. Note in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects:
The subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any modifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example:
But occasionally we find the subject after the verb.
421.By simple inversion.
We will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for example:
In this sentenceIis the subject of the sentence,have heardis the verb, andneveris an adverb modifying the verb phrase,have heard. But in order to place emphasis upon the wordnever, which is the emphatic word in the sentence,neveris placed first, and the verb phrase inverted so that the subjectIcomes in between the two words which form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order would be:
You will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon the wordneveras the inverted statement.
422.In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence.As for example:
423.The real subject comes after the verb when we use the introductory wordit.As for example:
To gois really the subject of the sentence.To go will not be safe.
Itis sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence;It is a wonderful story.
Hereitis the subject of the sentence anda wonderful storyis the predicate complement. But in the sentence:
To hear him tell the storyis the real subject of the sentence. The first sentence,It is a wonderful story, could not be rewritten, but the second sentence could be rewritten, as follows:
424.The introductory wordtherereverses the order of the sentence, just as the introductory wordit. The real subject is used later in the sentence. As for example:
This could be rewritten, omitting the introductory wordthere. We could say:
The nounpeopleis the subject of the sentence.
In the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one line, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the simple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an adjective used as a noun:
425.Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the principal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is to find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers constitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example:
In this sentence,stands yonder in the parkis the complete predicate.Standsis a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified by the adverbyonderand by the adverb phrasein the park.
426.If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action, then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five parts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an adverb phrase. As for example:
In this sentence, the complete predicate isgladly made him a coat at that time.Madeis the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, andcoatis its direct object.Himis the indirect object.Madeis also modified by the adverbgladly, and the adverb phrase,at that time.
All of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an incomplete verb.
427.Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those which may be used for its subject.
We may have a noun used as the object of the verb.For example:
In these sentences,crops,farmers,childrenandwealthare nouns used as the object of the verb.
A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb.For example:
In the above sentences,me,them,usandhimare the objects of the verbs,will teach,send,have invitedandwill remember.
Remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form, as,me,her,him,usandthem.
428.An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:
In this last sentence, the infinitive,to learn, is the direct object of the verbwant. The object of the infinitive,to learn, isall that I can. All of this taken together with the verbwant, forms the complete predicate,want to learn all that I can.
429.The participle may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:
In these sentences, the participlesthundering,dancing, andsingingare the objects of the verbsheard,enjoyedanddo hear.
430.An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:
In these sentences the adjectivesrich,poor,weak,goodandtrue, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbssaw,crushesandseek.
We have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or copulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as,The man is a hero; or an adjective, as,The man is class-conscious; or a phrase, as,The man is in earnest.
431.A pronoun; as,
In these sentences the subjects of the verbs areshe,thatandthis, and the pronounswho,heandIare used as predicate complements.
432.Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement, thus:
To remain ignorant, is the subject of the copulative verbis, and the infinitive,to remain, with its complement,a slave, is the predicate complement.
433.A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate complement, thus:
Mingling, in this sentence is a participle of the verbmingle, but is used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verbis.Societyis the subject of the verb.
Where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the participle is part of the verb phrase, thus:
Here,are mingling, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the participleminglingis not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of the verb phraseare mingling.
If you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part of the verb phrase.
In the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives and participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses which are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of these verbs.
Thereisno such thing in America as an independent press, unless itisin the country towns.Youhaveit and Iknowit. Thereisnot one of you whodares to writehis honest opinions. If you did, youknowbeforehand that it would never appear in print.Iam paid$150.00 a week forkeepingmy honest opinions out of the paper with which I am connected. Others of youare paidsimilar salaries for similar things. Any one of you whowould beso foolish asto writehis honest opinionswould beout on the streets looking for another job.The business of the New York journalistis to destroythe truth, to lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, andto sellhis race and his country for his daily bread.Youknowthis and Iknowit. So what follyisthisto be toastingan "Independent Press."Wearethe tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. Wearethe jumping-jacks; theypullthe strings and we dance. Our talents, our possibilities and our livesareall the property of other men. Weareintellectual prostitutes.—John Swinton.
Thereisno such thing in America as an independent press, unless itisin the country towns.
Youhaveit and Iknowit. Thereisnot one of you whodares to writehis honest opinions. If you did, youknowbeforehand that it would never appear in print.
Iam paid$150.00 a week forkeepingmy honest opinions out of the paper with which I am connected. Others of youare paidsimilar salaries for similar things. Any one of you whowould beso foolish asto writehis honest opinionswould beout on the streets looking for another job.
The business of the New York journalistis to destroythe truth, to lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, andto sellhis race and his country for his daily bread.
Youknowthis and Iknowit. So what follyisthisto be toastingan "Independent Press."
Wearethe tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. Wearethe jumping-jacks; theypullthe strings and we dance. Our talents, our possibilities and our livesareall the property of other men. Weareintellectual prostitutes.—John Swinton.
434.Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single statement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a subject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the one predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a principal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete statements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple sentence, but compound or complex.
Remember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more subjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the same subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate.
435.The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases. The modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases. The modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the sentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes acomplexsentence, for it now contains a dependent clause.
436.The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the subject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus:
This is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to sense or reason.
Adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus:
Adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify, thus:
The adverbthenprecedes the verbcame, which it modifies; and the adverbquicklyis placed after the verb.
Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the words which they modify, thus:
In this sentence, the adverbmoreis placed before the adjectiveindustrious, which it modifies; and the adverbquiteis placed before the adverbrapidly, which it modifies.
Adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify, thus:
In this last sentence, the adjective phrase,of the mine, is placed after the nounmanager, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase,with the men, is placed after the verbremained, which it modifies.
437.These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the elements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not strictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon certain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words first, as:
The logical order of this sentence is:
But we want to place the emphasis uponyour help, so we change the order of the words and place the phrase,without your help, first.
438.This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with more emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements in the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the usual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the thought.
To transpose these inverted sentences—that is to place the elements in their logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in the sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we can grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading.
439.When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be lost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls. The author has a single thread of thought running through the different sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves well in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and emotion roar about us.
In the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the sentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As for example:
The elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten in their logical order this would read:
You will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry.