Informants state that the various bear doctors all over the country knew each other.[18]Two or more of them often met by chance at some spring or other secluded spot in the mountains, and at such times discussed their activities. They might tell each other where they expected to be next month, or what mountain they would use as a hiding place and base of operations next year.
Each bear doctor acted independently and knew no restrictions of any sort so far as his fellows were concerned, nor had he or his relatives any immunity from the attacks of other bear doctors, for one bear doctor might become enraged at another and cause his death or that of some of his relatives.
The only persons who were immune from these attacks were the captain of the village and his immediate family. He knew all the bear doctors and received a share of their spoils in consideration for his friendly protection.
Any bear doctor or person who knew all the secrets of bear doctoring usually took his relatives, or, at any rate, certain of them, to this hiding place and showed them enough of his secrets so that they would lose their fear of bear doctors and not be frightened when they heard of the death of some one through an attack by bears. Such partially initiated persons always mourned the loss of the victim as did the rest of the people, but were not, in reality, afraid of the bear doctors.
While the bear doctor was the most important of magicians, there were also mountain lion or panther doctors, who were also possessed of considerable power. Very little was learned of this class of medicine man save that the head part of their suits was made of the head and neck of an actual panther skin drawn over a basket frame similar to that used by the bear doctor. The remainder of the suit was made of shredded soaproot fiber woven on to a fine net, which was said to simulate quite well the skin of the panther.
The panther doctor wore no bead armor as did the bear doctor, but wore a necklace of small and finely made shell beads around his neck. He always carried a bag filled with valuable beads with which to bribe to silence any one who might discover him. The bear doctor used the beads comprising his armor for this purpose.
The ideas that the doctor is actually transformed into a bear, that bear hair grows out through his skin, and that he comes to life after having been killed—ideas found among certain California Indians[19]—have not been discovered among the Pomo.
As might be expected, from the contiguity of the two groups and their numerous cultural identities, the Pomo and Yuki[20]bear doctors are very similar. The Yuki, however, have certain beliefs that the Pomo do not possess.
The Yuki bear doctor began by repeatedly dreaming of bears and was taken out and instructed by actual bears, thus placing the bear in the position of a true guardian spirit, and making the doctor a realshaman. Later he was thought to be instructed and to have his powers developed by older shamans. The Pomo have no such notions.
The Yuki bear doctor was not always an evildoer, but in some measure an accepted benefactor, particularly in curing bear bites and in avenging wrongs to his community. His capacity thus was publicly recognized—a fact that is further evidenced by his performance of sleight-of-hand tricks. The Pomo bear doctor never performed any cure, practiced his magic with the greatest secrecy and only for his own satisfaction and aggrandizement, and had death awaiting him at the hands of his own people if he was unfortunate enough to be discovered.
The Yuki bear doctor carried a basket containing a stone which rumbled in imitation of the bear’s growl as the shaman shook his head. Analogous to this was the Pomo bear doctor’s set of water-filled baskets which swashed like a real bear’s viscera as he ran.
Both carried beads; but the Yuki to secure appropriate burial if killed, the Pomo as an armor and to bribe to secrecy him who might discover him.
The mode of attack and the dismemberment of the victim were quite similar in both tribes.
The Northern Sierra and Plains Miwok called bear doctorssulik müko. These shamans donned bearskins, but, like their Yuki colleagues, had bears as spirits and exhibited their powers publicly. Like the Yokuts bear doctors, they were thought able to transform themselves bodily into bears.
The Miwok relate how a man was hunting in the chaparral south of the Stanislaus when a bear appeared and asked what he was doing. The Indian replied that he was seeking an arrow lost in a shot at a red-headed woodpecker. The bear led him into its cave, kept and taught him for four days, and sent him home with several bears as guides. A white man, married to an Indian woman, instigated the building of a dance-house to give the bear doctor an opportunity to show his alleged powers. The latter accepted, came, walked into the fire, pushed aside the flaming brands and made himself a bed in the coals, arose after a time unharmed, swam, and resumed his human form.
The Miwok panther doctor was similarly met and instructed by apanther. He wore no skin and possessed no power of transformation. He did, however, acquire the panther’s ability to hunt, it was thought. In extreme old age he revealed his experiences and then died at once.
It is clear that the Miwok panther doctor is merely a shaman who has that animal as his personal guardian spirit, and that except for his power of transformation and the character of his guardian, the Miwok bear doctor does not essentially differ from an ordinary shaman.
It seems therefore that the institution of the bear doctor has attained its most extreme form among the Pomo.
1. The origin of bear doctors is assigned by the Pomo to the mythical times before men existed, when birds and mammals possessed human attributes. The first bear doctors arose from a relatively insignificant incident, which led one of the smallest of the birds to develop his magic powers.
2. These powers are believed to be now acquired through the wearing of a special suit which endows its wearer with rapidity of motion and great endurance, but which does not itself actually transport him or perform any act.
3. The powers are received through elaborate ritualistic songs and prayers to certain supernatural beings under whose patronage the doctor operates. These songs are largely sung not by the doctor himself but by an assistant while the doctor performs an elaborate dance with the various parts of the costume preparatory to actually putting them on for the first time.
4. In addition to this constant assistant, the bear doctor must have a female aide, who makes certain parts of his paraphernalia and cooks his special food. He is subject to certain restrictions connected with the menstrual periods of this female aide and his wife, and they, in turn, are subject through him to certain other restrictions.
5. Although all-powerful under ordinary circumstances, a bear doctor apparently loses all his magic power as soon as he is captured.
6. Bear doctors are all known one to another, but form no organized group or society. They are also usually known to the chief, to whom they pay tribute and give guarantee of immunity from attack in return for his connivance and protection.
7. In exceptional cases the bear doctors are harmless, but in the main their object is to kill and plunder, and they carry special weapons for this purpose. They do not practice curative medicine in any form.
8. There are apparently other kinds of magicians similar to bear doctors. One of these, the “panther doctors,” has been specifically mentioned.
These statements reflect the opinions of the Pomo. Some of the practices described by them could easily have had a basis in fact. Whether and to what extent they were actually performed remains to be ascertained.
Transmitted November 28, 1916.
[1]A. L. Kroeber, “Religion of the Indians of California,” present series,IV, 331, 1907.
[1]A. L. Kroeber, “Religion of the Indians of California,” present series,IV, 331, 1907.
[2]This is the site of an old Eastern Pomo village and is situated in the foot-hills about two miles northeast of the town of Upper Lake. It is located on the western slope of a hill and overlooks the lake.
[2]This is the site of an old Eastern Pomo village and is situated in the foot-hills about two miles northeast of the town of Upper Lake. It is located on the western slope of a hill and overlooks the lake.
[3]Identity unknown, and common Indian name not recorded.
[3]Identity unknown, and common Indian name not recorded.
[4]This name in the Northern dialect isbūta baōm, and in the Central dialect isbitaka yalō djak, literally grizzly bear between the legs flew. The Northern people say that the name of the bird previous to the accomplishment of this feat wasmābasōmsō. In speaking of this bird one Northern informant stated that when the first people were transformed into birds this man was wearing a very large head-dress. This accounts for the fact that the bird now carries a large topknot.
[4]This name in the Northern dialect isbūta baōm, and in the Central dialect isbitaka yalō djak, literally grizzly bear between the legs flew. The Northern people say that the name of the bird previous to the accomplishment of this feat wasmābasōmsō. In speaking of this bird one Northern informant stated that when the first people were transformed into birds this man was wearing a very large head-dress. This accounts for the fact that the bird now carries a large topknot.
[5]In very early times it is said that a string of four hundred beads was worth an amount about equal to two and one-half dollars. Later, after the introduction of the pump-drill, this value dropped to one dollar. On the basis of modern valuations of such skins, and under the higher rating of beads, this hide would have been worth 12,000 beads.
[5]In very early times it is said that a string of four hundred beads was worth an amount about equal to two and one-half dollars. Later, after the introduction of the pump-drill, this value dropped to one dollar. On the basis of modern valuations of such skins, and under the higher rating of beads, this hide would have been worth 12,000 beads.
[6]In giving the account the informant stated that while making their ceremonial attire the two worked entirely at night, as was always done by Indian bear doctors later, and then only upon perfectly dark nights, when the moon was not shining or when it was obscured by clouds. In case the moon suddenly emerged from behind a cloud they immediately ceased their work. This was made necessary by the fact that many hunters were abroad at night.
[6]In giving the account the informant stated that while making their ceremonial attire the two worked entirely at night, as was always done by Indian bear doctors later, and then only upon perfectly dark nights, when the moon was not shining or when it was obscured by clouds. In case the moon suddenly emerged from behind a cloud they immediately ceased their work. This was made necessary by the fact that many hunters were abroad at night.
[7]Another informant told of a marvelous journey said to have been made by his grandmother while the family resided many years ago in Eight-mile Valley. She went during one night to Healdsburg, Sebastopol, Bodega Bay, and Big River, thence returning to her home, covering in those few hours about two hundred miles.
[7]Another informant told of a marvelous journey said to have been made by his grandmother while the family resided many years ago in Eight-mile Valley. She went during one night to Healdsburg, Sebastopol, Bodega Bay, and Big River, thence returning to her home, covering in those few hours about two hundred miles.
[8]The bringing of beads as a death offering from one village to another, or from one political group of people to another, is calledkal kubek, while such an offering taken to the home of the family of the deceased by relatives in the same village is calledkal banek.
[8]The bringing of beads as a death offering from one village to another, or from one political group of people to another, is calledkal kubek, while such an offering taken to the home of the family of the deceased by relatives in the same village is calledkal banek.
[9]This stretcher is calledkaitsak, and consists of two side poles with short cross-pieces bound to them in such a manner as to resemble a ladder. It was used in early times for carrying the wounded or the dead back to the village. A corpse was bound to it by a binding of grapevine and the two ends of the stretcher rested upon the shoulders of the bearers.
[9]This stretcher is calledkaitsak, and consists of two side poles with short cross-pieces bound to them in such a manner as to resemble a ladder. It was used in early times for carrying the wounded or the dead back to the village. A corpse was bound to it by a binding of grapevine and the two ends of the stretcher rested upon the shoulders of the bearers.
[10]They were making abīcē gō; i.e., setting snares in the brush without making a brush fence. The fence with snares is calledbīcē warī.
[10]They were making abīcē gō; i.e., setting snares in the brush without making a brush fence. The fence with snares is calledbīcē warī.
[11]This pond, which is said to furnish the only water on this great mountain, was calledka kapa, and is said to be one of a very few ponds apparently without a spring, and calledka dabō, which are supposed to have been made in prehistoric times by bears as resting places for themselves. This pond is nowadays almost never visited by any one except hunters who have lost their way.
[11]This pond, which is said to furnish the only water on this great mountain, was calledka kapa, and is said to be one of a very few ponds apparently without a spring, and calledka dabō, which are supposed to have been made in prehistoric times by bears as resting places for themselves. This pond is nowadays almost never visited by any one except hunters who have lost their way.
[12]This loss of magic power and their consequent capture was explained as a supernatural penalty for their attempt to kill more than four victims in any one year.
[12]This loss of magic power and their consequent capture was explained as a supernatural penalty for their attempt to kill more than four victims in any one year.
[13]One informant ascribed the source of Pomo bear doctor knowledge to the Lake Miwok, to the south. This opinion, of course, conflicts with the preceding origin tale.
[13]One informant ascribed the source of Pomo bear doctor knowledge to the Lake Miwok, to the south. This opinion, of course, conflicts with the preceding origin tale.
[14]The bear doctor was known to the Pomo asgauk būrakal, “human bear.”Būrakalspecifically denotes the grizzly bear. The brown or cinnamon bear islīma, but black individuals, which we reckon as of the same species, were calledcīyō būrakal, “black grizzly bears,” by the Pomo.
[14]The bear doctor was known to the Pomo asgauk būrakal, “human bear.”Būrakalspecifically denotes the grizzly bear. The brown or cinnamon bear islīma, but black individuals, which we reckon as of the same species, were calledcīyō būrakal, “black grizzly bears,” by the Pomo.
[15]It would appear that restriction depended rather upon co-residence than blood kinship. The extent to which the taboo might accordingly affect a bear doctor’s activities will be realized when we reflect that it was customary for several related families to reside in one house, each family having its own door and each two families a separate fire. In the center of the house was the common baking pit.
[15]It would appear that restriction depended rather upon co-residence than blood kinship. The extent to which the taboo might accordingly affect a bear doctor’s activities will be realized when we reflect that it was customary for several related families to reside in one house, each family having its own door and each two families a separate fire. In the center of the house was the common baking pit.
[16]Usually, however, a person caught in this way was used as a “head rest” and servant, it is said, and received no instruction whatever.
[16]Usually, however, a person caught in this way was used as a “head rest” and servant, it is said, and received no instruction whatever.
[17]Another informant gave as these chief spirits sun-man, mountain-man, wind-man, night-man, water-man, and valley-man, though not stating that they were considered in this order.
[17]Another informant gave as these chief spirits sun-man, mountain-man, wind-man, night-man, water-man, and valley-man, though not stating that they were considered in this order.
[18]So far as could be ascertained, they formed no organized society, and never met as a body.
[18]So far as could be ascertained, they formed no organized society, and never met as a body.
[19]Kroeber,loc. cit.
[19]Kroeber,loc. cit.
[20]This comparison is based on manuscript data of Dr. Kroeber concerning the Yuki.
[20]This comparison is based on manuscript data of Dr. Kroeber concerning the Yuki.
Transcriber's notes:The following is a list of changes made to the original. The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.to his excuses, heuusallybrought home some game or berries.to his excuses, heusuallybrought home some game or berries.Thisconistedof two layers of rods obtained from the snowdropThisconsistedof two layers of rods obtained from the snowdropfrom the original group to thesingersopposite side.from the original group to thesinger’sopposite side.
Transcriber's notes:
The following is a list of changes made to the original. The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
to his excuses, heuusallybrought home some game or berries.to his excuses, heusuallybrought home some game or berries.
Thisconistedof two layers of rods obtained from the snowdropThisconsistedof two layers of rods obtained from the snowdrop
from the original group to thesingersopposite side.from the original group to thesinger’sopposite side.