Illumination.IN a practical treatise like the present, a dissertation on the antiquities and history of Illumination will not be looked for; nor is there space for the amount of detail that would be necessary to make the subject thoroughly understood. The more knowledge, however, the student has to work upon, the purer and more complete must be his practice; knowledge gives decision, decision leads to facility, and facility in any art whatever, is the main object of pursuit.For such knowledge, full, clear and accurate as it should be, we must refer to long and learned treatises; and to the inspection of many actual examples; since to understand clearly what is meant by illumination, one should not only read much, but study the work itself at every stage of its career. To look into this matter thoroughly, reference should be made to books upon illumination. Among the best of these books are “The Art of Illumination,” by Wyatt, and “Noel Humphrey’s Work.” However, a few directions may be given here. To begin with the materials.MATERIALS.A carefulinspection of the list of water colors manufactured at the present day, leads to the conclusion that the following colors may be used, though some of them are similar to others in tint, &c., or can for other reasons be superseded. These latter are marked in italics:YELLOWS.Cadmium Yellow.Gamboge.Lemon Yellow.Mars Yellow.Naples Yellow.Raw Sienna.Yellow Ochre.REDS.Brown Madder.Carmine.Crimson Lake.Indian Red.Orange Vermilion.Light Red.Scarlet Vermilion.Rose Madder.Rubens’ Madder.Vermilion.BLUES.Cobalt.French Blue.Intense Blue.Indigo.Smalt.Ultramarine Ash.ORANGES.Burnt Roman Ochre.Burnt Sienna.Mars Orange.Neutral Orange.PURPLES.Burnt Carmine.Indian Purple.Purple Lake.Purple Madder.Violet Carmine.GREENS.Emerald Green.Oxide of Chromium.Olive Green.BROWNS.Burnt Umber.Sepia.Vandyke Brown.BLACKS.Ivory Black.Lamp-black.WHITE.Chinese White.The selected colors should be apportioned into five lists, as follows, viz:First List.—Gamboge, cadmium yellow, crimson lake,vermilion, cobalt, French blue, emerald green, lamp-black, Chinese white.Second List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, emerald green, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Third List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, brown madder, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Fourth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, brown madder, cobalt, French blue, neutral orange, burnt sienna, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Fifth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, Naples yellow, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, Rubens’ madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, cobalt, French blue, smalt, mars orange, burnt sienna, purple madder, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.These five lists will be found to be carefully selected, and to contain the colors best adapted for illumination.There is not space in this book to enter into the peculiarities and properties of these colors, which are fully discussed in several works and treatises. The colors here recommended are permanent in character, but chrome yellows, red lead and pure scarlet it is best to avoid, as they are not lasting. Pure scarlet is fugitive and the others in time turn black. “Winsor and Newton’s moist water colors” are the best for all illuminating purposes.Good Bristol board with a fine firm grain, and having an ivory-like surface, but without gloss, is the best material for illuminating upon.BRUSHES.Fewbrushes are required for illumination, but from the peculiar character of the work, and the nature of the colors, &c., employed, it is requisite that the right kinds should be carefully selected. For general use, the red sable brushes in goose, duck and crow quills should be employed; say one goose, (for large grounds,) two duck (for ordinary work,) and three crow (for fine linings on initials, &c.) The red sable is preferable to the brown sable, or other hair, as being stronger and firmer at the point. An ordinary flat camel’s hair brush will suffice for damping the back of gold paper, washing over weak solutions of gum water or ox-gall, &c., &c.When gold leaf is used, a soft camel’s hair brush (of swan quill size,) may be found useful for touching, smoothing, &c. For laying down the gold leaf, a very thin, flat brush is required, called a gilder’s tip.Burnishers are made of agate, and the following metallic preparations are found useful in illuminating, viz: gold paper, shell gold, saucer gold, shell silver, saucer silver, shell aluminum, shell platina. Silver inevitably blackens. Aluminum is preferable to silver.Besides colors, materials to work upon, pens, brushes, burnisher, tracer, and metallic preparations, there will be required an eraser, compass, rule, pencil, India rubber, sponge, cotton wood, some tracing paper and other small sundries. A bottle of gum water will be necessary, and also one of liquid ox-gall. A little of the former, mingled with water, is used to impart brilliancy to colors.COLORING.Underthe head of materials, are given colors recommended for illumination. Besides the colors in that list, several others are requisite, that are only to be obtained by mixing on the palette. These broken hues are employed in backgrounds, and as shading for the more brilliant colors and tints on the ornamentation.There is only space in this book for a few practical directions for laying on such colors as are named.First, then, everything connected with the painting should be scrupulously clean and free from dust. Distilled water should be used, or at least soft water that is perfectly clear. A very little gum water, in some cases, should be added to the color as it is mixed. The sable pencils should be in readiness, two or three, or more, according to the work and habits of the operator.Perhaps this is the best place to mention the manner of using the Chinese white. On being taken from the bottle, it is found to be exceedingly viscid, and troublesome to work, clogging the point of the pencil. Of course it should be diluted with pure water, but as this renders it too thin for the firm and fine lines and dots so often wanted, it must be left a few moments to evaporate and thicken; if still viscid, it should be thinned again and left. White thus put out of the tube and thinned, will be found to be even better for working a day or two afterwards than at first. All that is required, as it will be dry, is to dip the pencil in water before working it upon the white, and make a good point before transferring it to the illumination. Unless these precautions be observed, the use of white will be attended with continual vexation.When a compound color is required, sufficient for the work in hand should be mixed up at one time, lest, more being required, the second tint differ from the first, when a disagreeable patchy appearance will ensue.Compound tints should be kept extremely clean in tone, muddy or dirty tints being fatal to that exquisite purity of colors for which illumination is so famed. It is a great mistake to suppose that dark tints are necessarily somewhat dirty; · on the contrary, they can be kept as clean and clear in tone as the most vivid combinations.The following is a list of colors and mixed tints, stated without technical phraseology, as far as possible:Table of Colors and Mixed Tints.YELLOWS.Vivid high-toned yellow or primrose.—Lemon yellow, yellow and white, gamboge and white.Bright transparent yellow.—Gamboge.Rich glowing yellow.—Cadmium yellow.Clear transparent yellow.—Mars yellow, lemon yellow and cadmium yellow, lemon yellow and gamboge and mars yellow.Rich brown yellow.—Cadmium yellow and little purple madder, cadmium yellow and little Indian red.Buff yellow.—Cadmium and touch of burnt carmine, orange and little white.REDS.Vivid high-toned red.—Orange vermilion.Deep opaque red.—Vermilion.Bright transparent pink.—Rose madder, rose madder and touch of carmine.Opaque pink.—White and little orange vermilion, white and little vermilion, white and little Indian red, white and touch of carmine, white and little rose madder.Rich glowing crimson.—Crimson, lake, carmine.Chocolate red.—Vandyke brown and carmine, vandyke brown and crimson lake, burnt carmine and orange vermilion.Russet red.—Carmine and Indian red.BLUES.Bright azure blue.—Cobalt, cobalt and white.Rich strong blue.—French blue.Deep dense blue.—French blue and little black.Brilliant purple blue.—Smalt.ORANGES.Clear pure yellow orange.—Mars orange, neutral orange.Deeper yellow orange.—Burnt sienna.Intensely brilliant transparent red orange.—Carmine over a ground of gamboge.Rich glowing warm orange.—Cadmium yellow and carmine, cadmium yellow and orange vermilion, orange vermilion and little lemon yellow.PURPLES.Rich cold purple, (violet, lavender, &c.)—Indian purple, Indian purple and French blue, cobalt and little rose madder, cobalt and little crimson lake, cobalt and little purple madder, French blue, white and little rose madder, French blue and little crimson lake, French blue and little burnt carmine.Rich warm purple, (pure maroon, &c.)—Purple madder, burnt carmine, crimson lake and little French blue, French blue and carmine, rose madder and little French blue, rose madder and little cobalt, crimson lake and cobalt, burnt carmine and little French blue. White may be added with any of these.Greyish lilac.—Cobalt and brown madder.GREENS.Vivid high-toned green.—Emerald green, emerald green and lemon yellow.Bright apple green.—Emerald green and little oxide of chromium, emerald green little oxide of chromium and little lemon yellow, lemon yellow and little cobalt.High-toned transparent green.—Gamboge and little cobalt,cadmium and little cobalt, gamboge and little French blue, cadmium and little French blue.Low-toned transparent green.—Cadmium yellow, French blue and very little crimson lake, lemon yellow, cobalt and very little rose madder, cobalt and little gamboge and little cadmium yellow, French blue and little gamboge, French blue and little cadmium.Light opaque green.—Oxide of chromium and white.Deep opaque green.—Oxide of chromium.BROWNS.Pure brown.—Vandyke brown.Rich warm brown.—Vandyke brown and little burnt carmine or crimson lake, purple madder and touch of cadmium yellow, vandyke brown and brown madder.Cold brown.—Vandyke brown and Indian purple.Yellow brown.—Indian red and little cadmium.Stone drab.—Vandyke brown and white, yellow ochre and white.BLACK.Dense black.—Lamp-black.WHITE.Pure white.—Chinese white.GREYS AND NEUTRALS.Grey.—Black and white.Purple grey.—Black and white and little cobalt.Slate grey.—Black and white and little crimson lake, black and white and Indian red and cobalt.Silvery grey.—Black and white and rose madder.Clear warm neutrals for shading.—Orange vermilion and cobalt in various proportions. Various proportions of colors may be tried, particularly for the greys, neutrals, and quiet compounds, and the most pleasing and suitable should be carefully noted for use.Scientific formulas are not to be condemned, but in the present state of the science of color, it is rash to say what is, and what is not right, by law. In delicate harmonies, considerable license must be allowed to what is called taste.Whatever the numerical formulas may do in preventing us from utterly disgusting ourselves, excellence in coloring can only be attained by careful study of beautiful examples.Reynolds’ maxim, of constant copying was practiced ages before by the Italian masters; and it is so still, as the hundreds and thousands of studies left by deceased artists testify.Twenty good color studies, patiently copied, are worth all the numerical formulas in the world. Nevertheless, to those who are timid or inexperienced in judgment of color, a careful study of Chevreul or Hay will not be without advantage, and though it will not create the power to color harmoniously, it will aid in its development.If any one should attempt to copy a manuscript of the fourteenth century or thereabouts, first cut the proper kind of Bristol board the size the page is to be, and prepare it by rubbing with pomice. Then, having sketched it out upon a board, rule very lightly the lines for the margin, type and initial letter. If the border be open, that is, upon a white ground, as most of this period were, the outer marginal line will have to be erased, so that it had better only be ruled in pencil. Next the type must be printed according to the date, sketching the capitals, which you will finish afterwards. The next thing to be done is to copy the large initial letter, which must be done with great care, testing its accuracy by tracing. If there is to be any picture, then that must be next sketched. Your outline cannot be too delicate. Last of all you will copy the border, and that in the following way: fix your eye upon some prominent portion of the border in the copy, and having ascertained its exact position and dimensions, proceed to mark it out upon the surface of your Bristol board. Measureagain the distance from this to the next most prominent feature, and so on in like manner until you have all the most important parts fixed in their proper places.Now advance to the subordinate ornamental detail and gradually fill that in, dividing your work into small portions and taking the greatest care to have all correct. Do not rest till you have a literal fac-simile of the original.Now proceed to color; but first mix a little liquid ox-gall with your colors, which will enable you to paint with ease and certainty. The initial letter can be first finished, using the appropriate colors. Next begin to color the border, applying one tint wherever it is wanted all through it, then finishing the next, and so on until you have all the colors laid on their proper places. These you will proceed to shade and ornament in solid Chinese white or gold; any little figures also or grotesques should now be completed, including of course the terminal line, generally of gold and color, which encloses the type. When all these are finished and really accurate, both in shape and color, if there be a picture, that comes next in order; if not, you will put in any dots of color or flat gold which may happen to adorn the background. This will conclude the operation of copying, and any marks or spots which have occurred in the course of your drawing can now be erased with bread.DESIGN.Ifyou have any enthusiasm for this art, and have studied manuscript of the best period of illumination, as has been advised, you will not be content simply to copy the designs of others, but will desire yourself to try and compose them. Isit not our duty to try and develop to the extent of our power, any art we cherish? Therefore let us consider the subject of design and try to form some rules for our future guidance.The first thing necessary to do, is to fix upon some existing style of illumination to serve as a basis for any intended developments. Of course this style must naturally be the best and purest, and that is, as I have often said before, and as I firmly believe, that which prevailed from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth century. But you will ask of what nature ornament is to be, and this leads to a rule, thatornamentation must consist of conventionalized representation of natural objects. All true beauty consists in the representation of, or is derived from, natural objects. To this rule there is no exception. But nature may be represented in two ways, either by realizing her, as far as our means will possibly allow, or by conventionalism. In realism, we endeavor to obtain a literal copy of the object to be represented and set no bounds to our pursuit of this.In conventionalism, we beforehand arrange certain limits at which to stop, and then get as much of nature as we can within those limits.Now in conventionalism it is to a great extent optional how far you will realize your flowers or leaves. You may do it more or less as you feel the occasion requires.The principle appears to be to seize upon the leading characteristics of the flower or form you wish to represent, and then to add as much of the rest as you can consistently with your subject. Thus, you may either represent a rose as an arrangement of five leaves of a certain shape and color round a yellow or gold central spot—as was the general mediæval type—or you may go somewhat nearer the reality and add a few more petals, &c., so as to bring it to a closer resemblance. You must arrange this with yourself, but as a rule observe that the more you realize any flower the more you must proportionablyincrease the quantity of conventional ornament around it, so as to make it evident that you had voluntarily set yourself limits which you did not choose to pass. While I am on this subject, I will take the opportunity to advise you to make great use of leaves in your designs. Wonderful and perfect as all nature’s work is, yet it seems as if the stamp of perfection and divine beauty were more strongly impressed on leaves than on any other of her productions. The thousand changing forms of beauty with which she clothes the woods, the banks, and the very ground we tread on, ought to be to all, but especially to lovers of beauty and truth, objects of the purest joy and delight. Make very frequent use of them in designing, for they ever have been and ever will be sources of the best and most heavenly beauty. Remember always that in painting them it is far more important to have the form and outline quite right and true, than to imitate or approach their color, which may be left arbitrary. Remember also that their power will be better felt by a somewhat sparing use of them, I mean as regards not over-crowding your page, so that though you may employ many leaves, you will have but few of each.The last rule of design is, that thereshould be a general purpose and meaning running throughout the ornamental detail. You should endeavor to carry out some idea in each border, and to this end should reflect well, first what idea you wish to give, next how, and by what means you may best convey it. I will not say that your meaning will at once be plain to every one, nor indeed is it likely to be so to more than a few, but still the working with a deliberate idea in your mind will give a unity and completeness to your design, which will be entirely wanting to one worked out at random, or with a view only to prettiness—the most noxious idea it is possible to conceive, and the rock upon which nearly all modern illuminators make shipwreck. Accustom yourself to ask not, “is thispretty?” but, “is itright?” and this habit will, I think, be a safeguard to you.The principles of design as applied to this art, have now been considered. There are, it is true, many other points on which I could speak, but as my space will not allow it, I have chosen those which are the most important, and against which there is to beginners the greatest temptation to err. Careful study of the best manuscript you have an opportunity of seeing, must be your guide on other points. But as an encouragement let me tell you, that if you have any talent for design, and will take the trouble diligently tothinkover the directions here given and try them by such fourteenth century examples as may fall in your way, I do not think that you can go wrong in any material point. Difference of opinion and taste there must always be, but as long as we grasp the truth and resolutely cling to our landmarks, our steps cannot go far astray.These foregoing directions were prepared for this work by a lady who excels in the art of illumination.
Illumination.IN a practical treatise like the present, a dissertation on the antiquities and history of Illumination will not be looked for; nor is there space for the amount of detail that would be necessary to make the subject thoroughly understood. The more knowledge, however, the student has to work upon, the purer and more complete must be his practice; knowledge gives decision, decision leads to facility, and facility in any art whatever, is the main object of pursuit.For such knowledge, full, clear and accurate as it should be, we must refer to long and learned treatises; and to the inspection of many actual examples; since to understand clearly what is meant by illumination, one should not only read much, but study the work itself at every stage of its career. To look into this matter thoroughly, reference should be made to books upon illumination. Among the best of these books are “The Art of Illumination,” by Wyatt, and “Noel Humphrey’s Work.” However, a few directions may be given here. To begin with the materials.MATERIALS.A carefulinspection of the list of water colors manufactured at the present day, leads to the conclusion that the following colors may be used, though some of them are similar to others in tint, &c., or can for other reasons be superseded. These latter are marked in italics:YELLOWS.Cadmium Yellow.Gamboge.Lemon Yellow.Mars Yellow.Naples Yellow.Raw Sienna.Yellow Ochre.REDS.Brown Madder.Carmine.Crimson Lake.Indian Red.Orange Vermilion.Light Red.Scarlet Vermilion.Rose Madder.Rubens’ Madder.Vermilion.BLUES.Cobalt.French Blue.Intense Blue.Indigo.Smalt.Ultramarine Ash.ORANGES.Burnt Roman Ochre.Burnt Sienna.Mars Orange.Neutral Orange.PURPLES.Burnt Carmine.Indian Purple.Purple Lake.Purple Madder.Violet Carmine.GREENS.Emerald Green.Oxide of Chromium.Olive Green.BROWNS.Burnt Umber.Sepia.Vandyke Brown.BLACKS.Ivory Black.Lamp-black.WHITE.Chinese White.The selected colors should be apportioned into five lists, as follows, viz:First List.—Gamboge, cadmium yellow, crimson lake,vermilion, cobalt, French blue, emerald green, lamp-black, Chinese white.Second List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, emerald green, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Third List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, brown madder, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Fourth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, brown madder, cobalt, French blue, neutral orange, burnt sienna, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.Fifth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, Naples yellow, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, Rubens’ madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, cobalt, French blue, smalt, mars orange, burnt sienna, purple madder, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.These five lists will be found to be carefully selected, and to contain the colors best adapted for illumination.There is not space in this book to enter into the peculiarities and properties of these colors, which are fully discussed in several works and treatises. The colors here recommended are permanent in character, but chrome yellows, red lead and pure scarlet it is best to avoid, as they are not lasting. Pure scarlet is fugitive and the others in time turn black. “Winsor and Newton’s moist water colors” are the best for all illuminating purposes.Good Bristol board with a fine firm grain, and having an ivory-like surface, but without gloss, is the best material for illuminating upon.BRUSHES.Fewbrushes are required for illumination, but from the peculiar character of the work, and the nature of the colors, &c., employed, it is requisite that the right kinds should be carefully selected. For general use, the red sable brushes in goose, duck and crow quills should be employed; say one goose, (for large grounds,) two duck (for ordinary work,) and three crow (for fine linings on initials, &c.) The red sable is preferable to the brown sable, or other hair, as being stronger and firmer at the point. An ordinary flat camel’s hair brush will suffice for damping the back of gold paper, washing over weak solutions of gum water or ox-gall, &c., &c.When gold leaf is used, a soft camel’s hair brush (of swan quill size,) may be found useful for touching, smoothing, &c. For laying down the gold leaf, a very thin, flat brush is required, called a gilder’s tip.Burnishers are made of agate, and the following metallic preparations are found useful in illuminating, viz: gold paper, shell gold, saucer gold, shell silver, saucer silver, shell aluminum, shell platina. Silver inevitably blackens. Aluminum is preferable to silver.Besides colors, materials to work upon, pens, brushes, burnisher, tracer, and metallic preparations, there will be required an eraser, compass, rule, pencil, India rubber, sponge, cotton wood, some tracing paper and other small sundries. A bottle of gum water will be necessary, and also one of liquid ox-gall. A little of the former, mingled with water, is used to impart brilliancy to colors.COLORING.Underthe head of materials, are given colors recommended for illumination. Besides the colors in that list, several others are requisite, that are only to be obtained by mixing on the palette. These broken hues are employed in backgrounds, and as shading for the more brilliant colors and tints on the ornamentation.There is only space in this book for a few practical directions for laying on such colors as are named.First, then, everything connected with the painting should be scrupulously clean and free from dust. Distilled water should be used, or at least soft water that is perfectly clear. A very little gum water, in some cases, should be added to the color as it is mixed. The sable pencils should be in readiness, two or three, or more, according to the work and habits of the operator.Perhaps this is the best place to mention the manner of using the Chinese white. On being taken from the bottle, it is found to be exceedingly viscid, and troublesome to work, clogging the point of the pencil. Of course it should be diluted with pure water, but as this renders it too thin for the firm and fine lines and dots so often wanted, it must be left a few moments to evaporate and thicken; if still viscid, it should be thinned again and left. White thus put out of the tube and thinned, will be found to be even better for working a day or two afterwards than at first. All that is required, as it will be dry, is to dip the pencil in water before working it upon the white, and make a good point before transferring it to the illumination. Unless these precautions be observed, the use of white will be attended with continual vexation.When a compound color is required, sufficient for the work in hand should be mixed up at one time, lest, more being required, the second tint differ from the first, when a disagreeable patchy appearance will ensue.Compound tints should be kept extremely clean in tone, muddy or dirty tints being fatal to that exquisite purity of colors for which illumination is so famed. It is a great mistake to suppose that dark tints are necessarily somewhat dirty; · on the contrary, they can be kept as clean and clear in tone as the most vivid combinations.The following is a list of colors and mixed tints, stated without technical phraseology, as far as possible:Table of Colors and Mixed Tints.YELLOWS.Vivid high-toned yellow or primrose.—Lemon yellow, yellow and white, gamboge and white.Bright transparent yellow.—Gamboge.Rich glowing yellow.—Cadmium yellow.Clear transparent yellow.—Mars yellow, lemon yellow and cadmium yellow, lemon yellow and gamboge and mars yellow.Rich brown yellow.—Cadmium yellow and little purple madder, cadmium yellow and little Indian red.Buff yellow.—Cadmium and touch of burnt carmine, orange and little white.REDS.Vivid high-toned red.—Orange vermilion.Deep opaque red.—Vermilion.Bright transparent pink.—Rose madder, rose madder and touch of carmine.Opaque pink.—White and little orange vermilion, white and little vermilion, white and little Indian red, white and touch of carmine, white and little rose madder.Rich glowing crimson.—Crimson, lake, carmine.Chocolate red.—Vandyke brown and carmine, vandyke brown and crimson lake, burnt carmine and orange vermilion.Russet red.—Carmine and Indian red.BLUES.Bright azure blue.—Cobalt, cobalt and white.Rich strong blue.—French blue.Deep dense blue.—French blue and little black.Brilliant purple blue.—Smalt.ORANGES.Clear pure yellow orange.—Mars orange, neutral orange.Deeper yellow orange.—Burnt sienna.Intensely brilliant transparent red orange.—Carmine over a ground of gamboge.Rich glowing warm orange.—Cadmium yellow and carmine, cadmium yellow and orange vermilion, orange vermilion and little lemon yellow.PURPLES.Rich cold purple, (violet, lavender, &c.)—Indian purple, Indian purple and French blue, cobalt and little rose madder, cobalt and little crimson lake, cobalt and little purple madder, French blue, white and little rose madder, French blue and little crimson lake, French blue and little burnt carmine.Rich warm purple, (pure maroon, &c.)—Purple madder, burnt carmine, crimson lake and little French blue, French blue and carmine, rose madder and little French blue, rose madder and little cobalt, crimson lake and cobalt, burnt carmine and little French blue. White may be added with any of these.Greyish lilac.—Cobalt and brown madder.GREENS.Vivid high-toned green.—Emerald green, emerald green and lemon yellow.Bright apple green.—Emerald green and little oxide of chromium, emerald green little oxide of chromium and little lemon yellow, lemon yellow and little cobalt.High-toned transparent green.—Gamboge and little cobalt,cadmium and little cobalt, gamboge and little French blue, cadmium and little French blue.Low-toned transparent green.—Cadmium yellow, French blue and very little crimson lake, lemon yellow, cobalt and very little rose madder, cobalt and little gamboge and little cadmium yellow, French blue and little gamboge, French blue and little cadmium.Light opaque green.—Oxide of chromium and white.Deep opaque green.—Oxide of chromium.BROWNS.Pure brown.—Vandyke brown.Rich warm brown.—Vandyke brown and little burnt carmine or crimson lake, purple madder and touch of cadmium yellow, vandyke brown and brown madder.Cold brown.—Vandyke brown and Indian purple.Yellow brown.—Indian red and little cadmium.Stone drab.—Vandyke brown and white, yellow ochre and white.BLACK.Dense black.—Lamp-black.WHITE.Pure white.—Chinese white.GREYS AND NEUTRALS.Grey.—Black and white.Purple grey.—Black and white and little cobalt.Slate grey.—Black and white and little crimson lake, black and white and Indian red and cobalt.Silvery grey.—Black and white and rose madder.Clear warm neutrals for shading.—Orange vermilion and cobalt in various proportions. Various proportions of colors may be tried, particularly for the greys, neutrals, and quiet compounds, and the most pleasing and suitable should be carefully noted for use.Scientific formulas are not to be condemned, but in the present state of the science of color, it is rash to say what is, and what is not right, by law. In delicate harmonies, considerable license must be allowed to what is called taste.Whatever the numerical formulas may do in preventing us from utterly disgusting ourselves, excellence in coloring can only be attained by careful study of beautiful examples.Reynolds’ maxim, of constant copying was practiced ages before by the Italian masters; and it is so still, as the hundreds and thousands of studies left by deceased artists testify.Twenty good color studies, patiently copied, are worth all the numerical formulas in the world. Nevertheless, to those who are timid or inexperienced in judgment of color, a careful study of Chevreul or Hay will not be without advantage, and though it will not create the power to color harmoniously, it will aid in its development.If any one should attempt to copy a manuscript of the fourteenth century or thereabouts, first cut the proper kind of Bristol board the size the page is to be, and prepare it by rubbing with pomice. Then, having sketched it out upon a board, rule very lightly the lines for the margin, type and initial letter. If the border be open, that is, upon a white ground, as most of this period were, the outer marginal line will have to be erased, so that it had better only be ruled in pencil. Next the type must be printed according to the date, sketching the capitals, which you will finish afterwards. The next thing to be done is to copy the large initial letter, which must be done with great care, testing its accuracy by tracing. If there is to be any picture, then that must be next sketched. Your outline cannot be too delicate. Last of all you will copy the border, and that in the following way: fix your eye upon some prominent portion of the border in the copy, and having ascertained its exact position and dimensions, proceed to mark it out upon the surface of your Bristol board. Measureagain the distance from this to the next most prominent feature, and so on in like manner until you have all the most important parts fixed in their proper places.Now advance to the subordinate ornamental detail and gradually fill that in, dividing your work into small portions and taking the greatest care to have all correct. Do not rest till you have a literal fac-simile of the original.Now proceed to color; but first mix a little liquid ox-gall with your colors, which will enable you to paint with ease and certainty. The initial letter can be first finished, using the appropriate colors. Next begin to color the border, applying one tint wherever it is wanted all through it, then finishing the next, and so on until you have all the colors laid on their proper places. These you will proceed to shade and ornament in solid Chinese white or gold; any little figures also or grotesques should now be completed, including of course the terminal line, generally of gold and color, which encloses the type. When all these are finished and really accurate, both in shape and color, if there be a picture, that comes next in order; if not, you will put in any dots of color or flat gold which may happen to adorn the background. This will conclude the operation of copying, and any marks or spots which have occurred in the course of your drawing can now be erased with bread.DESIGN.Ifyou have any enthusiasm for this art, and have studied manuscript of the best period of illumination, as has been advised, you will not be content simply to copy the designs of others, but will desire yourself to try and compose them. Isit not our duty to try and develop to the extent of our power, any art we cherish? Therefore let us consider the subject of design and try to form some rules for our future guidance.The first thing necessary to do, is to fix upon some existing style of illumination to serve as a basis for any intended developments. Of course this style must naturally be the best and purest, and that is, as I have often said before, and as I firmly believe, that which prevailed from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth century. But you will ask of what nature ornament is to be, and this leads to a rule, thatornamentation must consist of conventionalized representation of natural objects. All true beauty consists in the representation of, or is derived from, natural objects. To this rule there is no exception. But nature may be represented in two ways, either by realizing her, as far as our means will possibly allow, or by conventionalism. In realism, we endeavor to obtain a literal copy of the object to be represented and set no bounds to our pursuit of this.In conventionalism, we beforehand arrange certain limits at which to stop, and then get as much of nature as we can within those limits.Now in conventionalism it is to a great extent optional how far you will realize your flowers or leaves. You may do it more or less as you feel the occasion requires.The principle appears to be to seize upon the leading characteristics of the flower or form you wish to represent, and then to add as much of the rest as you can consistently with your subject. Thus, you may either represent a rose as an arrangement of five leaves of a certain shape and color round a yellow or gold central spot—as was the general mediæval type—or you may go somewhat nearer the reality and add a few more petals, &c., so as to bring it to a closer resemblance. You must arrange this with yourself, but as a rule observe that the more you realize any flower the more you must proportionablyincrease the quantity of conventional ornament around it, so as to make it evident that you had voluntarily set yourself limits which you did not choose to pass. While I am on this subject, I will take the opportunity to advise you to make great use of leaves in your designs. Wonderful and perfect as all nature’s work is, yet it seems as if the stamp of perfection and divine beauty were more strongly impressed on leaves than on any other of her productions. The thousand changing forms of beauty with which she clothes the woods, the banks, and the very ground we tread on, ought to be to all, but especially to lovers of beauty and truth, objects of the purest joy and delight. Make very frequent use of them in designing, for they ever have been and ever will be sources of the best and most heavenly beauty. Remember always that in painting them it is far more important to have the form and outline quite right and true, than to imitate or approach their color, which may be left arbitrary. Remember also that their power will be better felt by a somewhat sparing use of them, I mean as regards not over-crowding your page, so that though you may employ many leaves, you will have but few of each.The last rule of design is, that thereshould be a general purpose and meaning running throughout the ornamental detail. You should endeavor to carry out some idea in each border, and to this end should reflect well, first what idea you wish to give, next how, and by what means you may best convey it. I will not say that your meaning will at once be plain to every one, nor indeed is it likely to be so to more than a few, but still the working with a deliberate idea in your mind will give a unity and completeness to your design, which will be entirely wanting to one worked out at random, or with a view only to prettiness—the most noxious idea it is possible to conceive, and the rock upon which nearly all modern illuminators make shipwreck. Accustom yourself to ask not, “is thispretty?” but, “is itright?” and this habit will, I think, be a safeguard to you.The principles of design as applied to this art, have now been considered. There are, it is true, many other points on which I could speak, but as my space will not allow it, I have chosen those which are the most important, and against which there is to beginners the greatest temptation to err. Careful study of the best manuscript you have an opportunity of seeing, must be your guide on other points. But as an encouragement let me tell you, that if you have any talent for design, and will take the trouble diligently tothinkover the directions here given and try them by such fourteenth century examples as may fall in your way, I do not think that you can go wrong in any material point. Difference of opinion and taste there must always be, but as long as we grasp the truth and resolutely cling to our landmarks, our steps cannot go far astray.These foregoing directions were prepared for this work by a lady who excels in the art of illumination.
IN a practical treatise like the present, a dissertation on the antiquities and history of Illumination will not be looked for; nor is there space for the amount of detail that would be necessary to make the subject thoroughly understood. The more knowledge, however, the student has to work upon, the purer and more complete must be his practice; knowledge gives decision, decision leads to facility, and facility in any art whatever, is the main object of pursuit.
For such knowledge, full, clear and accurate as it should be, we must refer to long and learned treatises; and to the inspection of many actual examples; since to understand clearly what is meant by illumination, one should not only read much, but study the work itself at every stage of its career. To look into this matter thoroughly, reference should be made to books upon illumination. Among the best of these books are “The Art of Illumination,” by Wyatt, and “Noel Humphrey’s Work.” However, a few directions may be given here. To begin with the materials.
MATERIALS.
A carefulinspection of the list of water colors manufactured at the present day, leads to the conclusion that the following colors may be used, though some of them are similar to others in tint, &c., or can for other reasons be superseded. These latter are marked in italics:
YELLOWS.
Cadmium Yellow.Gamboge.Lemon Yellow.Mars Yellow.Naples Yellow.Raw Sienna.Yellow Ochre.
REDS.
Brown Madder.Carmine.Crimson Lake.Indian Red.Orange Vermilion.Light Red.Scarlet Vermilion.Rose Madder.Rubens’ Madder.Vermilion.
BLUES.
Cobalt.French Blue.Intense Blue.Indigo.Smalt.Ultramarine Ash.
ORANGES.
Burnt Roman Ochre.Burnt Sienna.Mars Orange.Neutral Orange.
PURPLES.
Burnt Carmine.Indian Purple.Purple Lake.Purple Madder.Violet Carmine.
GREENS.
Emerald Green.Oxide of Chromium.Olive Green.
BROWNS.
Burnt Umber.Sepia.Vandyke Brown.
BLACKS.
Ivory Black.Lamp-black.
WHITE.
Chinese White.
The selected colors should be apportioned into five lists, as follows, viz:
First List.—Gamboge, cadmium yellow, crimson lake,vermilion, cobalt, French blue, emerald green, lamp-black, Chinese white.
Second List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, emerald green, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.
Third List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, cobalt, French blue, burnt sienna, brown madder, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.
Fourth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, brown madder, cobalt, French blue, neutral orange, burnt sienna, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.
Fifth List.—Lemon yellow, gamboge, Naples yellow, cadmium yellow, mars yellow, rose madder, Rubens’ madder, crimson lake, carmine, orange vermilion, vermilion, Indian red, cobalt, French blue, smalt, mars orange, burnt sienna, purple madder, burnt carmine, Indian purple, emerald green, green oxide of chromium, vandyke brown, lamp-black, Chinese white.
These five lists will be found to be carefully selected, and to contain the colors best adapted for illumination.
There is not space in this book to enter into the peculiarities and properties of these colors, which are fully discussed in several works and treatises. The colors here recommended are permanent in character, but chrome yellows, red lead and pure scarlet it is best to avoid, as they are not lasting. Pure scarlet is fugitive and the others in time turn black. “Winsor and Newton’s moist water colors” are the best for all illuminating purposes.
Good Bristol board with a fine firm grain, and having an ivory-like surface, but without gloss, is the best material for illuminating upon.
BRUSHES.
Fewbrushes are required for illumination, but from the peculiar character of the work, and the nature of the colors, &c., employed, it is requisite that the right kinds should be carefully selected. For general use, the red sable brushes in goose, duck and crow quills should be employed; say one goose, (for large grounds,) two duck (for ordinary work,) and three crow (for fine linings on initials, &c.) The red sable is preferable to the brown sable, or other hair, as being stronger and firmer at the point. An ordinary flat camel’s hair brush will suffice for damping the back of gold paper, washing over weak solutions of gum water or ox-gall, &c., &c.
When gold leaf is used, a soft camel’s hair brush (of swan quill size,) may be found useful for touching, smoothing, &c. For laying down the gold leaf, a very thin, flat brush is required, called a gilder’s tip.
Burnishers are made of agate, and the following metallic preparations are found useful in illuminating, viz: gold paper, shell gold, saucer gold, shell silver, saucer silver, shell aluminum, shell platina. Silver inevitably blackens. Aluminum is preferable to silver.
Besides colors, materials to work upon, pens, brushes, burnisher, tracer, and metallic preparations, there will be required an eraser, compass, rule, pencil, India rubber, sponge, cotton wood, some tracing paper and other small sundries. A bottle of gum water will be necessary, and also one of liquid ox-gall. A little of the former, mingled with water, is used to impart brilliancy to colors.
COLORING.
Underthe head of materials, are given colors recommended for illumination. Besides the colors in that list, several others are requisite, that are only to be obtained by mixing on the palette. These broken hues are employed in backgrounds, and as shading for the more brilliant colors and tints on the ornamentation.
There is only space in this book for a few practical directions for laying on such colors as are named.
First, then, everything connected with the painting should be scrupulously clean and free from dust. Distilled water should be used, or at least soft water that is perfectly clear. A very little gum water, in some cases, should be added to the color as it is mixed. The sable pencils should be in readiness, two or three, or more, according to the work and habits of the operator.
Perhaps this is the best place to mention the manner of using the Chinese white. On being taken from the bottle, it is found to be exceedingly viscid, and troublesome to work, clogging the point of the pencil. Of course it should be diluted with pure water, but as this renders it too thin for the firm and fine lines and dots so often wanted, it must be left a few moments to evaporate and thicken; if still viscid, it should be thinned again and left. White thus put out of the tube and thinned, will be found to be even better for working a day or two afterwards than at first. All that is required, as it will be dry, is to dip the pencil in water before working it upon the white, and make a good point before transferring it to the illumination. Unless these precautions be observed, the use of white will be attended with continual vexation.
When a compound color is required, sufficient for the work in hand should be mixed up at one time, lest, more being required, the second tint differ from the first, when a disagreeable patchy appearance will ensue.
Compound tints should be kept extremely clean in tone, muddy or dirty tints being fatal to that exquisite purity of colors for which illumination is so famed. It is a great mistake to suppose that dark tints are necessarily somewhat dirty; · on the contrary, they can be kept as clean and clear in tone as the most vivid combinations.
The following is a list of colors and mixed tints, stated without technical phraseology, as far as possible:
Table of Colors and Mixed Tints.
YELLOWS.
Vivid high-toned yellow or primrose.—Lemon yellow, yellow and white, gamboge and white.
Bright transparent yellow.—Gamboge.
Rich glowing yellow.—Cadmium yellow.
Clear transparent yellow.—Mars yellow, lemon yellow and cadmium yellow, lemon yellow and gamboge and mars yellow.
Rich brown yellow.—Cadmium yellow and little purple madder, cadmium yellow and little Indian red.
Buff yellow.—Cadmium and touch of burnt carmine, orange and little white.
REDS.
Vivid high-toned red.—Orange vermilion.
Deep opaque red.—Vermilion.
Bright transparent pink.—Rose madder, rose madder and touch of carmine.
Opaque pink.—White and little orange vermilion, white and little vermilion, white and little Indian red, white and touch of carmine, white and little rose madder.
Rich glowing crimson.—Crimson, lake, carmine.
Chocolate red.—Vandyke brown and carmine, vandyke brown and crimson lake, burnt carmine and orange vermilion.
Russet red.—Carmine and Indian red.
BLUES.
Bright azure blue.—Cobalt, cobalt and white.
Rich strong blue.—French blue.
Deep dense blue.—French blue and little black.
Brilliant purple blue.—Smalt.
ORANGES.
Clear pure yellow orange.—Mars orange, neutral orange.
Deeper yellow orange.—Burnt sienna.
Intensely brilliant transparent red orange.—Carmine over a ground of gamboge.
Rich glowing warm orange.—Cadmium yellow and carmine, cadmium yellow and orange vermilion, orange vermilion and little lemon yellow.
PURPLES.
Rich cold purple, (violet, lavender, &c.)—Indian purple, Indian purple and French blue, cobalt and little rose madder, cobalt and little crimson lake, cobalt and little purple madder, French blue, white and little rose madder, French blue and little crimson lake, French blue and little burnt carmine.
Rich warm purple, (pure maroon, &c.)—Purple madder, burnt carmine, crimson lake and little French blue, French blue and carmine, rose madder and little French blue, rose madder and little cobalt, crimson lake and cobalt, burnt carmine and little French blue. White may be added with any of these.
Greyish lilac.—Cobalt and brown madder.
GREENS.
Vivid high-toned green.—Emerald green, emerald green and lemon yellow.
Bright apple green.—Emerald green and little oxide of chromium, emerald green little oxide of chromium and little lemon yellow, lemon yellow and little cobalt.
High-toned transparent green.—Gamboge and little cobalt,cadmium and little cobalt, gamboge and little French blue, cadmium and little French blue.
Low-toned transparent green.—Cadmium yellow, French blue and very little crimson lake, lemon yellow, cobalt and very little rose madder, cobalt and little gamboge and little cadmium yellow, French blue and little gamboge, French blue and little cadmium.
Light opaque green.—Oxide of chromium and white.
Deep opaque green.—Oxide of chromium.
BROWNS.
Pure brown.—Vandyke brown.
Rich warm brown.—Vandyke brown and little burnt carmine or crimson lake, purple madder and touch of cadmium yellow, vandyke brown and brown madder.
Cold brown.—Vandyke brown and Indian purple.
Yellow brown.—Indian red and little cadmium.
Stone drab.—Vandyke brown and white, yellow ochre and white.
BLACK.
Dense black.—Lamp-black.
WHITE.
Pure white.—Chinese white.
GREYS AND NEUTRALS.
Grey.—Black and white.
Purple grey.—Black and white and little cobalt.
Slate grey.—Black and white and little crimson lake, black and white and Indian red and cobalt.
Silvery grey.—Black and white and rose madder.
Clear warm neutrals for shading.—Orange vermilion and cobalt in various proportions. Various proportions of colors may be tried, particularly for the greys, neutrals, and quiet compounds, and the most pleasing and suitable should be carefully noted for use.
Scientific formulas are not to be condemned, but in the present state of the science of color, it is rash to say what is, and what is not right, by law. In delicate harmonies, considerable license must be allowed to what is called taste.
Whatever the numerical formulas may do in preventing us from utterly disgusting ourselves, excellence in coloring can only be attained by careful study of beautiful examples.
Reynolds’ maxim, of constant copying was practiced ages before by the Italian masters; and it is so still, as the hundreds and thousands of studies left by deceased artists testify.
Twenty good color studies, patiently copied, are worth all the numerical formulas in the world. Nevertheless, to those who are timid or inexperienced in judgment of color, a careful study of Chevreul or Hay will not be without advantage, and though it will not create the power to color harmoniously, it will aid in its development.
If any one should attempt to copy a manuscript of the fourteenth century or thereabouts, first cut the proper kind of Bristol board the size the page is to be, and prepare it by rubbing with pomice. Then, having sketched it out upon a board, rule very lightly the lines for the margin, type and initial letter. If the border be open, that is, upon a white ground, as most of this period were, the outer marginal line will have to be erased, so that it had better only be ruled in pencil. Next the type must be printed according to the date, sketching the capitals, which you will finish afterwards. The next thing to be done is to copy the large initial letter, which must be done with great care, testing its accuracy by tracing. If there is to be any picture, then that must be next sketched. Your outline cannot be too delicate. Last of all you will copy the border, and that in the following way: fix your eye upon some prominent portion of the border in the copy, and having ascertained its exact position and dimensions, proceed to mark it out upon the surface of your Bristol board. Measureagain the distance from this to the next most prominent feature, and so on in like manner until you have all the most important parts fixed in their proper places.
Now advance to the subordinate ornamental detail and gradually fill that in, dividing your work into small portions and taking the greatest care to have all correct. Do not rest till you have a literal fac-simile of the original.
Now proceed to color; but first mix a little liquid ox-gall with your colors, which will enable you to paint with ease and certainty. The initial letter can be first finished, using the appropriate colors. Next begin to color the border, applying one tint wherever it is wanted all through it, then finishing the next, and so on until you have all the colors laid on their proper places. These you will proceed to shade and ornament in solid Chinese white or gold; any little figures also or grotesques should now be completed, including of course the terminal line, generally of gold and color, which encloses the type. When all these are finished and really accurate, both in shape and color, if there be a picture, that comes next in order; if not, you will put in any dots of color or flat gold which may happen to adorn the background. This will conclude the operation of copying, and any marks or spots which have occurred in the course of your drawing can now be erased with bread.
DESIGN.
Ifyou have any enthusiasm for this art, and have studied manuscript of the best period of illumination, as has been advised, you will not be content simply to copy the designs of others, but will desire yourself to try and compose them. Isit not our duty to try and develop to the extent of our power, any art we cherish? Therefore let us consider the subject of design and try to form some rules for our future guidance.
The first thing necessary to do, is to fix upon some existing style of illumination to serve as a basis for any intended developments. Of course this style must naturally be the best and purest, and that is, as I have often said before, and as I firmly believe, that which prevailed from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth century. But you will ask of what nature ornament is to be, and this leads to a rule, thatornamentation must consist of conventionalized representation of natural objects. All true beauty consists in the representation of, or is derived from, natural objects. To this rule there is no exception. But nature may be represented in two ways, either by realizing her, as far as our means will possibly allow, or by conventionalism. In realism, we endeavor to obtain a literal copy of the object to be represented and set no bounds to our pursuit of this.
In conventionalism, we beforehand arrange certain limits at which to stop, and then get as much of nature as we can within those limits.
Now in conventionalism it is to a great extent optional how far you will realize your flowers or leaves. You may do it more or less as you feel the occasion requires.
The principle appears to be to seize upon the leading characteristics of the flower or form you wish to represent, and then to add as much of the rest as you can consistently with your subject. Thus, you may either represent a rose as an arrangement of five leaves of a certain shape and color round a yellow or gold central spot—as was the general mediæval type—or you may go somewhat nearer the reality and add a few more petals, &c., so as to bring it to a closer resemblance. You must arrange this with yourself, but as a rule observe that the more you realize any flower the more you must proportionablyincrease the quantity of conventional ornament around it, so as to make it evident that you had voluntarily set yourself limits which you did not choose to pass. While I am on this subject, I will take the opportunity to advise you to make great use of leaves in your designs. Wonderful and perfect as all nature’s work is, yet it seems as if the stamp of perfection and divine beauty were more strongly impressed on leaves than on any other of her productions. The thousand changing forms of beauty with which she clothes the woods, the banks, and the very ground we tread on, ought to be to all, but especially to lovers of beauty and truth, objects of the purest joy and delight. Make very frequent use of them in designing, for they ever have been and ever will be sources of the best and most heavenly beauty. Remember always that in painting them it is far more important to have the form and outline quite right and true, than to imitate or approach their color, which may be left arbitrary. Remember also that their power will be better felt by a somewhat sparing use of them, I mean as regards not over-crowding your page, so that though you may employ many leaves, you will have but few of each.
The last rule of design is, that thereshould be a general purpose and meaning running throughout the ornamental detail. You should endeavor to carry out some idea in each border, and to this end should reflect well, first what idea you wish to give, next how, and by what means you may best convey it. I will not say that your meaning will at once be plain to every one, nor indeed is it likely to be so to more than a few, but still the working with a deliberate idea in your mind will give a unity and completeness to your design, which will be entirely wanting to one worked out at random, or with a view only to prettiness—the most noxious idea it is possible to conceive, and the rock upon which nearly all modern illuminators make shipwreck. Accustom yourself to ask not, “is thispretty?” but, “is itright?” and this habit will, I think, be a safeguard to you.
The principles of design as applied to this art, have now been considered. There are, it is true, many other points on which I could speak, but as my space will not allow it, I have chosen those which are the most important, and against which there is to beginners the greatest temptation to err. Careful study of the best manuscript you have an opportunity of seeing, must be your guide on other points. But as an encouragement let me tell you, that if you have any talent for design, and will take the trouble diligently tothinkover the directions here given and try them by such fourteenth century examples as may fall in your way, I do not think that you can go wrong in any material point. Difference of opinion and taste there must always be, but as long as we grasp the truth and resolutely cling to our landmarks, our steps cannot go far astray.
These foregoing directions were prepared for this work by a lady who excels in the art of illumination.