Rudder & Tiller
The tiller, which passes through the rudder-head, is moved to the right or left; and this is termed "moving the helm." For instance, "Move the helm over to starboard," "Put the helm to starboard,"that is to say, push the tiller over towards the starboard side of the yacht, which will carry the rudder to the port side of the yacht, and, if under way, the bow will change direction towards the left. In other words, when a vessel is under way, and going ahead by her own momentum, or anchored in a tide-way, the following rule always holds good:—
To starboard the helm carries the head to port.
To port the helm carries the head to starboard.See diagrams, Figs. 1 and 2, page 37.
This is all reversed at a critical point in seamanship, which should be carefully remembered; and that is when a yacht has what is called astern-board, i.e., has received some force which is making her go through the water stern first. This often happens when an attempt has been made to tack, and the execution of the manœuvre has seemed to fail: it is then for a moment or two that the yacht will often drift astern, keeping in the wind's eye, making it uncertain whether or not she will yet "go about." It is at this moment, whilst she is making this stern-board, that a knowledge of the helm will yet put her about by shifting the helm hard over to the opposite side from where it was when the attempt was made to go about. Remember not to move the helm till the yacht has commenced making stern-way, then this law applies:—
To starboard the helm carries the head to starboard.
To port the helm carries the head to port.
For instance, if it were desired to go about by bringing the helm over to the starboard side of the yacht, and the manœuvre should fail, after the yacht has come head to wind, and commenced to get stern-way, it might yet be consummated by shifting the helm, or tiller, over to port, which would have exactly the same effect as it formerly had when the yacht was advancing, and the helm hard a starboard.
Starboard helm
Port helm
A yacht should be perfectly enough balanced with sails and ballast to carry a nearly even helm when on the wind: but it is often the case that they carry what is called alee-helm; that is to say, when the yacht is on a wind, the tiller is continually poked down to leeward, or the opposite side of the yacht from the wind, to keep her up to her course, from which a tendency to fall off is shown: this is usually caused by too much head-sail, and may be remedied by a shorter bowsprit, a smaller jib, or another cloth on the after-leach of the mainsail.
To carry a lee-helm is a "beastly thing," as an Englishman would say, and something that cannot long be endured by those who truly like yachting.If the yacht is free from the odious lee-helm, she may carry aweather-helm, which is not as bad as a lee-helm, but is troublesome. This causes the yacht to have a tendency to "luff up into the wind," and causes the tiller to be carried hard over on the weather-side of the yacht, and is usually occasioned by too much after-sail, or bad storage of ballast. Both these habits of carrying a lee, or weather-helm, are detrimental to speed, as in both positions the rudder is often held at nearly a right angle to the keel, decreasing the speed materially. A yacht that is well balanced in sails and ballast will, on a wind, habitually carry the tiller a point or two to windward of the line of the keel, and it will need but little movement in any direction to keep her on her course. Sometimes, in sudden squalls, a yacht that carries a weather-helm will luff up into the wind in spite of the helm, so as not to be stopped except by slacking off the main-sheet. The same may occur in yawing with a yacht that carries a lee-helm. The helm may be put hard down, and sometimes the jib-sheet will have to be eased off, before the yacht will come to the wind. A weather-helm is endurable, but a lee-helm never,—"Well, hardly ever."
Sheets are the ropes that confine the mainsail and jib in place, and are most important in their uses. The jib-sheets lead along the deck, aft, tothe standing-room, in most yachts, and in heavy weather should not be belayed so but what they can be cast off in an instant by a sudden jerk of the hand. They may be held in place by a sort of hitch, hard to describe, where one part jams the other, and keeps it in place. Any boatman will explain how it is made. The main-sheet makes fast, usually, at or near the helmsman, under whose charge it is;and in heavy weather this should not be made fast at all, but only one turn taken, and the remainder of the strain rest upon the hand. Of course, in yachts over thirty to forty feet in length, with crews, every thing can be made fast: but we are now writing of smaller craft, and it is repeated, in squally and dirty weathernever make fast the main-sheet; it is the key to the whole science of boat-sailing, and should never be out of one's hand in time of emergency. It can, after taking one turn, be wound around the tiller, and brought to the same hand as the one that is moving the helm, and yet be instantly cast off, if necessary.
This useful rope holds up the main-boom, and its length is regulated by a pulley. In scudding before the wind it is very useful; for, by means of the pulley, the end of the boom can be "topped up," so as to be kept out of the water when the yacht rolls heavily. It is also useful in making themainsail set well; and, after the latter is hoisted, it can be made to set flat as a board by slacking the topping-lift so that the after-leach of the sail will wholly sustain the outer end of the main-boom.
The pump should always be kept in good order, and ready for immediate use. In case the yacht springs a leak, the best way to stop it is to pass a light sail over the bows, and bring it aft over the leak by means of ropes on both sides of the yacht. Leaks are more easily stopped on the outside, the pressure of the water forcing the canvas into the damaged part; and even light canvas is almost water-proof. Of course, after once having thus temporarily stopped a leak, it is scarcely necessary to add that one should seek shelter in the nearest port, and have the yacht perfectly repaired before proceeding farther; for there is nothing more deceptive, or dangerous even, than a small leak, which is almost always sure to open, and become a source of great anxiety, just so soon as the sea begins to get up and the wind to blow,—at the very moment, in other words, when the yacht needs all possible care and attention in other directions, to insure her safety. Never neglect a small leak, but have it attended to and repaired at once.
Examine the well of the yacht often, and ascertain by personal inspection that she is not makingwater faster than is usual, and especially have this attended to during rough weather. If a leak is discovered, the yacht should, if possible, be put before the wind till it is secured; for she will receive less strain to hull and spars in this position than in any other.
A yacht is said to be close-hauled, or sailing "full and by" when she is brought as near to the wind as is possible, so as to advance through the water; for it is to be presumed that it is understood, that if the main-boom were brought so as to pass directly over the line of the keel of the yacht, and the head of the yacht brought as near the wind as possible, and the sail to remain full, and not shake, she would not advance, but would simply be pushed to leeward by the wind. To insure her advancing, the boom must be at some angle from the line of the keel: therefore it may be taken as a rule that the main-boom, in sailing, is always kept out over the quarter, on one side or the other; and close-hauled simply means that it is brought as far inboard, or towards the line of the keel, by means of the main-sheet, as experience has proved can be done, and have her advance through the water. Some yachts haul aft the main-boom closer than others, being enabled to do so on account of their build and model; and the closer the boom canbe brought to the line of the keel, and the yacht still kept advancing, the nearer the wind she will be said to sail, and will "hold a good wind," as it is called. And this is, of course, adesideratumin beating to windward, or against the wind at an angle to it; for the yacht that makes the angle least between itself and the direction of the wind will, other things being equal, arrive the quickest at its destination; whilst another, that cannot lie so nigh the wind, will have to pass over much more water to arrive at the same place. On general principles, all fore-and-aft vessels lie equally near the wind, usually within four points and a half; but there are craft, that from their model, and equal balance of sail, or some other unknown cause, will lie nearer than their neighbors, and seem to eat up into the wind.
Just how far to have the main-boom over the side of the yacht, in sailing close-hauled, has never been settled; for it resolves itself to this. If the boom is hauled further inboard, the yacht sails nearer to the wind, but in an increased ratio loses its speed; for, if it should be hauled completely in till in a line with the keel, the yacht would stop, as has been explained: whilst, the farther out over the side it is allowed to go, the faster the yacht sails, but the farther also from the wind and the direction that it is desired to proceed in to windward. Hence a happy medium must be decided upon;and there is no doubt but what the result of most races has depended more upon the use of the main sheet, when close-hauled, or beating to windward, than upon any other cause. Just how flat to trim the sheets can only be acquired by experience; but the following general rules will apply:—
As a general principle, the sheets can be trimmed flatter, or farther aft, in light weather and a smooth sea, than in heavy weather and a head sea. In fact, it is impossible to sail as near the wind in lumpy water as in smooth water. After a yacht has been reefed, also, she will not lie as near the wind as before, for the same reasons that compelled the reefing.
With old hands, the yacht, when close-hauled, is allowed to, what sailors call, "go through the water," rather than to point up almost into the wind's eye, and keep bobbing up and down, and advancing very little. In most yachts it will be found by experiment that the main-boom should be at about the angle shown in the figure in the diagram on p. 46, marked "close hauled;" but others may be, perhaps, hauled slightly more inboard: but, as a general law, a good free sheet is the better, especially in a sea-way.
Is important, and it can always be known by the following method. Push the helm very slowly over to leeward, and, as the yacht commences to come towards the wind, keep the eye fastened upon the luff, or inner leach, of the mainsail. As soon as the yacht is too near the wind to have the sail stand full, a little wave will be seen to agitate the luff of the sail, from its head to the foot, usually commencing near the head, and just under the gaff, as that part of the sail is at a further angle from the wind than the part that is fastened to the main-boom; the gaff blowing out much further to leeward, not being confined by a sheet as the main-boom is. This wave, or shake, is caused by the wind getting on both sides of the sail, and, if persisted in, would bring the yacht to a stand-still, with the sail flapping in the wind's eye. But short practice will enable one to see almost instantly this commencement of a shake, that begins to show itself on the mainsail like a smile breaking over the countenance of a pretty woman; and at the first symptom reverse the helm, and keep the yacht in that position which is called sailing "by the wind," or "full and by;" that is to say, full sails, and by the wind. If, after the yacht is in this position, a bearing on shore can be taken to steer by, it will be a good thing;but as the wind often changes even several points, especially near the coast-line, every few moments, this experiment must be repeated; and it is this keeping a yacht up to her work, and never letting her fall off, and never shaking her, and yet taking advantage of every flaw, that goes to make up the accomplished helmsman. There are other signs besides these, which to a sailor are very simple, that denote to him when the yacht is off the wind; such as the angle at which the wind strikes his face, the direction of the wind on the face of the waters, and the line of the weather-vane at the main truck, and the smoke from his pipe: these will do for him as well as luffing and shaking the mainsail, but the latter method is the perfect one; and, if the yacht can be so steered as to keep just the suspicion of a little smile rippling its luff below the throat of the gaff, it will be the perfection of sailing "close-hauled," or "by the wind."
When the wind is favorable, and the yacht will lay her course without having to beat towards her destination at an angle against the head wind, as in close-hauled, then the sails are arranged in a different manner; and the main-boom is swung out over the side in just such proportion as the wind may be free, till completely out, so as to hang at right angles with the keel, when the wind is dead aft. (See diagrams.)
Running free
This is the most difficult steering of any; and in rough water it is very hard to keep the yacht upon her course, for the reason that the seas will lift the stern out of the water, thus at once neutralizing the use of the rudder for a moment, and causing the yacht to yaw. Besides this, the speed changes, this affecting the rudder also. When on top of a sea, and all the sails full, the yacht will go fast: when she attempts to bury her head, and kick up her heels, and becalms the jib and lower part of the mainsail, she will go slower. There is one thing to be guarded against in running before the wind, and that is the "jibing" of the main-boom; that is to say, the wind getting on the forward part of the sail, from any cause,—whether by change of wind, or on account of bad steering,—and carrying it violently over to the other side, endangering the yacht, and with a liability, in heavy weather, of carrying away the mast. This must be guarded against carefully; and if the sea is very bad, and the yacht steers very wild, it is better to tack down to leeward, as it is termed, that is to say, to haul up the yacht a little towards the wind on either tack, so as to bring it over the quarter, and then run before it for a distance, and then, by careful jibing, bring the wind over the other quarter, and then proceed on.
In harbor-sailing, a buoy or point often appears ahead, which, if passed, the yacht could be at once kept away free, being now close-hauled, thus saving the time and inconvenience of tacking, but, as she is going, will be right in the way, unless she is put about. To avoid tacking in such a case, where the yacht willalmoststand by, a manœuvre is often executed (if the tide is favorable, and the wind brisk), to avoid tacking, called a "pilot's luff," and consists of—when quite near the object to be passed, and according to its position as right ahead or slightly to leeward—bringing the yacht quickly up into the wind, so that the sails shake, and by her own momentum shooting her dead to windward once or twice her length; and then, before her headway is lost, and the rudder, therefore, useless, keeping her off again till every thing draws, when the same manœuvre may be again executed, each time gaining a position farther to windward than could have been gained in any other way, except by going about on the other tack.
It takes a steady hand at the tiller, and a good calculation of the momentum of the yacht, to execute a pilot's luff well: but it is very useful often, if well performed, and very disastrous in a race; for instance, if the helmsman succeeds in getting the yacht "into irons," and with a stern-board on,as may be the case if he brings her up too high, or neglects to move the helm in time to get back upon his course before the momentum of the yacht is lost, or lets her go about on the other tack. A pilot's luff is a very pretty manœuvre when well executed; and you shall see many an old boatman squeezing his boat by a point, instead of taking the trouble of going about, knowing, that, the moment he has doubled it, his course will be such that the wind will be fair, and he can then ease off his sheets, and go on his way rejoicing.
Tacking.—Beating to Windward.—A Long and a Short Leg.—How to put a Yacht about.—How to distinguish the Starboard Tack from the Port Tack.—Jibing, or Wearing.—Dropping the Peak.—To beat to Windward in a Tide-Way.—To take in a Jib, and furl it.—To take in a Mainsail, and furl it.—To reef a Jib, or take off a Bonnet.—To clap one Reef in a Mainsail.—To cast out a Reef.
Tacking.—Beating to Windward.—A Long and a Short Leg.—How to put a Yacht about.—How to distinguish the Starboard Tack from the Port Tack.—Jibing, or Wearing.—Dropping the Peak.—To beat to Windward in a Tide-Way.—To take in a Jib, and furl it.—To take in a Mainsail, and furl it.—To reef a Jib, or take off a Bonnet.—To clap one Reef in a Mainsail.—To cast out a Reef.
Tacking (1)
Is the art of putting a yacht about, so that the wind, which has been blowing upon the starboard side, we will say, shall blow upon the port side, or on the opposite side of the sails to which it was before the manœuvre was executed, and, when used to force the vessel by a series of angles towards the direction from which the wind proceeds, is called "beating to windward." Sometimes the wind is not dead ahead, and yetin such a direction that the yacht cannot proceed except by tacking once in a while. This is termedmaking a long and a short leg.(See diagram.)
We will first explain how a yacht is put about in heavy weather and with seamanlike accuracy.
Tacking (2)
In the first place, let us define the starboard tack from the port tack, andvice versa. It must be remembered that a yacht is on the starboard tack when the main-boom is out over the port quarter, and the port jib-sheets trimmed down; and on the port tack, when the main-boom is out over the starboard quarter; or the starboard jib-sheets trimmed down; or a yacht is said to be on the starboard tack when the wind blows so as to hit the starboard side of the boat, andvice versa. This is very useful to remember; for there are several "rights of way" that one has when on the starboard tack, which will be treated of hereafter. The windward side of the yacht also denotes which tack she is upon, the name of the weather-side being the name of the tack. We will suppose that the yacht is on the starboard tack, with the main-boomout over the port quarter, the port jib-sheets trimmed down, and the yacht close-hauled to the wind. Have every thing gotten ready for tacking, by singing out,Ready about!when all assistants should take their positions as before instructed; then (we will suppose you are steering your own yacht) keep off till the yacht is going a good full through the water, and then, by means of the tiller gradually pressed hard over to port, bring her into the wind's eye, singing out, as the tiller is being moved, "Hard a-lee;" at which command the assistant at the jib-sheet should cast off all but one turn, and, as the boat starts into the wind, should cast that off, letting the jib fly loosely at the command,Let go the jib-sheet!which follows quickly the announcement of "Hard a-lee." Then, unless the yacht gets a stern-board, which has been explained elsewhere, she is helped round by pushing the main-boom—which is made fast by its sheet, and works itself—out over the starboard quarter. When the yacht is just about to pass the direction of the wind, and is nearly upon the other tack, give the order to "trim down on the port jib-sheet,"—the same sheet as has just been cast off; and the outer surface of the sail will act as a lever to push the head of the yacht off till the wind fills the mainsail, when the order, "Let draw!" should be given, and the jib-sheet let go on the port side, and trimmed down as fast as slacked, by another assistant on the starboard side. (See diagrams.)
The Art of Tacking
When the weather is light, the yacht small, or particularly easy in coming about, all the above may not need to be executed. Some vessels will come about without starting the head-sheets; others always need it; some always get stern-way, and need the helm shifted to bring them round; whilst the centre-board boats, as a class, fly round without touching any thing. But it is well to know how to get a yacht about in a heavy sea; and all the principles that will help bring about this result have been given above.
There are times when the sea is too high, and the sail so much reduced that a yacht will not go about by turning towards the wind, but must be gotten on the other tack by wearing, as it is technically called in ships, where the yards are square, and jibing, as it is called in crafts that carry fore-and-aft sails, i.e., sails that hoist up on a mast, and are stretched upon booms, in contradistinction to those that are fastened to yards that cross the mast at right angles, as in a ship often called by sailors, for this reason, a "square-rigger."
Jibing is at all times a delicate manœuvre, as many have found out to their sorrow if they have ever been careless. It is also a very deceptive manœuvre, to any but sailors. How easy it is for land-lubbers, after facing a good square breeze, tothink, when the yacht is kept away before it, that the wind has gone down! And the writer has actually brought his yacht to the wind again, to convince one sceptic that it was the position of the yachtwhollythat caused all the change; which is extremely marked, as all must allow. It is from this treacherous smoothness, after so much buffeting about when close-hauled, that all the mischief occurs; for the boom often, if carelessly allowed to jibe, will fill with wind, and, as it goes over, either part the main-sheet, or carry away the mast, or do other damage, sometimes of a very serious nature. It is forgotten, also, in this manœuvre, that, when the mainsail comes aft, there is a moment when it flutters in the wind's eye; and the yacht, relieved of its immense pressure, loses in a great measure her momentum, and then, when the sail fills with a rush, sufficient allowance for the loss of speed, and the force of the hurrying wind that fills the great mainsail, is not taken into account.
This manœuvre must, however, be executed when the yacht will not go about by turning to windward; but it is advised to use this method as little as possible, except in light summer airs in inner harbors, when it may be executed with impunity and without any danger of mishaps.
Dropping the peak
We will suppose a yacht is running before the wind on the port tack, with the main-boom off to its fullest extent; which is a position that she willreach in turning to leeward, from any other position, either close-hauled or running free, before she can be jibed. It is always safer, if the wind is at all strong, "to drop the peak" before attempting the evolution. "Dropping the peak" consists of letting go the peak-halliards of the mainsail, so that the outer clew and head of the sail, that is attached to the gaff, will be lowered down so as to dangle alongside of the mainmast, with the gaff pointing to the deck. This makes of the mainsail, for the time being, a sort of triangular or leg-of-mutton sail, and takes off the leverage of the high part,that the wind might fill in jibing, and thus press over the yacht dangerously. (See diagram.)
Jibing
After dropping the peak, commence hauling in upon the main-sheet, keeping the yacht all the time turned a very little towards the wind on the port side, till the main-sheet is hauled chock aft, and the main-boom almost amidships; then take a good turn with it, and shift the helm gradually, till the wind is on the starboard side slightly, and the sail has filled with a slat upon that tack; when the main-sheet may be slackened, the peak hoisted, and the yacht kept on her course.
It is very important at times to know how a current sets; for, in beating to windward, it makes allthe difference in the world often, which tack the yacht is upon, and whether she is heading well up to the tide, or crossing it at such an angle as to receive its whole force; and, being swept to leeward, the direction of the current will decide which tack to keep the longer upon, and to make as short as possible the tack that brings the keel at right angles to the current. Manage the yacht, also, so that, when the current or tide-way is faced in the place of its greatest strength, the yacht shall be upon the tack that nearly stems it, and that she shall be placed upon the unfavorable tack only when she approaches parts of the tide-way where the current may be less strong. A knowledge of the direction of a tide-way, and how to take advantage of it, has won many a race.
It is best to first bring to by the wind; but the jib can be taken in and furled, with the yacht in different positions.
Stand by the jib-halliards, and have the down-haul well manned, also the lee jib-sheet; then, at the command, "Down jib!" or, "Let go the jib-halliards!" or, "Take in the jib!" the halliards are cast off, the lee jib-sheet eased off, and the down-haul bowsed upon, till the head of the jib is snug down to the boom, when it should be carefully belayed, and the lee-sheet again made fast,leaving a little slack for furling. Then lay out upon the bowsprit, on the weather-side, and pick up the sail from out to leeward, and furl it to the bowsprit by means of gaskets, or stops, or in any way that is arranged for, being careful, if the yacht is pitching much, not to be thrown over the bowsprit to leeward, if submerged in a sea; for the person is suddenly lifted by a sea that may reach only to the middle, and, if care is not taken, pitched over the bowsprit and to leeward. Having made every thing fast, lay in, and set taut the jib-halliards, and belay them, and bring the after-clew of the jib amidships, by setting taut on the starboard and port jib-sheets, and belaying them, and coiling down every thing snug.
Bring the yacht close to the wind, and haul the main-sheet flat aft, and belay it carefully; for, if it should get adrift whilst the sail was being furled, some one might be knocked overboard. Then stand by the throat and peak-halliards, and, at the word "Lower away," ease away handsomely on each, taking care not to let the peak drop too fast, which, if done, sometimes causes the hoops to jam, and the whole sail to stick, till the peak-halliards are hoisted upon again to clear things. When the sail is wholly down, make fast the halliards, and get along on the weather-side of the main-boom, andpick up the sail by what is called "skinning it;" that is to say, not to haul it up bodily upon the boom, but by repeatedly taking the canvas, and shaking it towards one, it is finally rolled up so as to lay snugly on the boom, to which it should be fastened by gaskets. The main-boom should then be lifted into a crotch, if one is used, and the throat and peak-halliards hauled taut, and the main-sheet again belayed, as it will have to be slacked to get the crotch under the boom, and every thing coiled up snug, and belayed.
This consists of the art of reducing the sails of a yacht in heavy weather, so that she will not be top-heavy, and be able to stand up bravely against the coming blast. And here let the writer beg all persons who desire to be advised at all, not to delay reefing too long; and always put in two reefs rather than one, if the weather looks very dirty. Reefing before bad weather reaches one is quite another thing than trying to reef down in the middle of a thunder-storm in which one has been caught by holding on too long.
If fitted with a bonnet, instead of reef-points, bring the yacht to the wind, lower away on the jib-halliards, and bowse on the down-haul, and lowerthe jib enough so as to bring the reef-cringle down to the bowsprit; then, if a bonnet, unlace and cast off, and, if reef-points, tie up the sail with them, and lash the outer clew to the bowsprit, and cast off the jib-sheet blocks, and hook the sister-hooks into the reef-cringle; hoist up the sail, and trim it.
Haul down the jib, bring the yacht to the wind, haul the main-boom chock aft, and belay the sheet carefully; lower away on the throat and peak-halliards till the reef-band is down somewhat lower than the main-boom; then, by means of the reef-pennant rove through the reef-cringle on the outer-leach of the sail, bowse the foot out on the boom, and lash it fast by passing an earing through the cringle, and around the boom by several turns, till the clew of the sail is securely fastened; then pass an earing from the reef-cringle in the luff of the sail around the main-boom in the same manner, and commence fastening the reef-points, either around the main-boom, or to an iron jack-stay fastened to the boom, or around the foot of the sail, according as the yacht may be arranged, remembering to make each knot a square knot, and not a "granny."
After the sail is half lowered in this manner, so as to get at the reef-band, &c., the yacht is kept head to sea and "hove to," by placing the tiller towards the lee-side of the yacht, or what is called"hard a-lee," where it is secured till the vessel is reefed, and started again on her way. In reefing, always haul out on the reef-pennant first, and stretch the foot of the sail, and then lash the luff next, and fasten the reef-points last.
When the points are all tied, hoist away on the throat and peak-halliards, and set the sail.
Proceed in exactly the same manner, except that, in first commencing to reef, two reefs can be taken in one by lowering the sail to the second reef-band, and proceeding in exactly the same manner as in the first reef, except that the two extremities of the sail are lashed at the second reef-band cringles; and, in tying the reef-points, no notice is taken of the first reef-points, but they are stowed with the rest of the sail to the boom, and are not tied. This taking two reefs in one is often done when caught suddenly and a great reduction of sail is needed at once; and it is as useful and safe as if one reef above the other had been properly tied, the only difference being, that if the weather should moderate, so that the yacht would need but one reef, instead of the two she has in, nothing can be done, till the weather is enough settled to carry all sail, towards shaking out the two reefs in one, which would, of course, shake out the whole sail: and valuable time may be lost for want of more sail,set; but, if it is really needed, the two reefs in one can be cast out, and a single reef taken in.
Reefed sails
Bring the yacht to the wind in the same manner as for reefing, and unknot carefully all the reef-pointsfirst, then cast off the lashing at the luff, and, lastly, the earing at the end of the boom.
Signal-Lights.—The United States Regulations for Steering and Sailing, and the Rules of the Road.—Fog-Signals.—Salutes.—Dipping Colors.—Coming alongside.—Quarterdeck Etiquette.—Useful Articles of Cabin Furniture.—Anchor Watch.—Method and SystemversusDisorder.
Signal-Lights.—The United States Regulations for Steering and Sailing, and the Rules of the Road.—Fog-Signals.—Salutes.—Dipping Colors.—Coming alongside.—Quarterdeck Etiquette.—Useful Articles of Cabin Furniture.—Anchor Watch.—Method and SystemversusDisorder.
In all night sailing it is important to know the direction in which any passing vessel is proceeding, and also to be able to give notice of the direction in which one's own yacht is sailing, or, if she be at anchor, to so denote, so as to avoid collisions; and, for this purpose, law and custom have made certain fixed rules, the most important of which, and those that are necessary for usual contingencies, are here appended.
Article 2.—The lights mentioned in the following articles, and no others, shall be carried in all weathers between sunset and sunrise.LIGHTS FOR STEAMSHIPS.Art. 3.—All steam vessels, when under way, shall carry(a.) At the foremast head a bright white light, so fixed as to show a uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of twenty points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light ten points on each side of the ship, viz., from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on either side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least five miles.(b.) On the starboard side a green light, so constructed as to throw a uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles.(c.) On the port side a red light, so constructed as to show a uniform, unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the port side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles.Note.To fix firmly in the mind the side of the vessel on which the lights belong, the following, although original, is recommended:Port wineis red, and theRED LIGHTis always on thePORT SIDE.(d.) The said green and red side-lights shall be fitted with inboard screens, projecting at least three feet forward from the light, so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the bow.LIGHTS FOR STEAM-TUGS.Art. 4.—Steamships, when towing other ships, shall carry two bright white masthead lights vertically, in addition to their side-lights, so as to distinguish them from other steamships.LIGHTS FOR SAILING-VESSELS.Art. 5.—Sailing-vessels under way, or being towed, shall carry the same lights as steamships under way, with the exception of the white masthead lights, which they shall never carry.EXCEPTIONAL LIGHTS FOR SMALL SAILING-VESSELS.Art. 6.—Whenever, as in the case of small vessels during bad weather, the green and red lights cannot be fixed, these lights shall be kept on deck, on their respective sides of the vessel, ready for instant exhibition; and shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in such manner as to make them most visible, and so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the starboard side. To make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy, they shall each be painted outside with the color of the light they respectively contain, and shall be provided with suitable screens.LIGHTS FOR SHIPS AT ANCHOR.Art. 7.—Ships, whether steamships or sailing-ships, when at anchor in roadsteads or fairways, shall, between sunset and sunrise, exhibit where it can best be seen, but at a height not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white light in a globular lantern of eight inches in diameter, and so constructed as to show a clear, uniform, and unbroken light visible all around the horizon, and at a distance of at least one mile.LIGHTS FOR PILOT-VESSELS.Art. 8.—Sailing pilot-vessels shall not carry the lights required for other sailing-vessels, but shall carry a white light at the masthead, visible all around the horizon; and shall also exhibit a flare-up light every fifteen minutes.LIGHTS FOR FISHING-VESSELS AND BOATS.Art. 9.—Open fishing-boats and other open boats shall not be required to carry side-lights required for other vessels, but shall, if they do not carry such lights, carry a lantern having a green slide on the one side, and a red slide on the other side; and, on the approach of or to other vessels, such lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision; so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the starboard side. Fishing-vessels and open boats when at anchor, or attached to their nets, and stationary, shall exhibit a bright white light. Fishing-vessels and open boats shall, however, not be prevented from using a flare-up light in addition, if considered expedient.RULES GOVERNING FOG-SIGNALS.FOG-SIGNALS.Art. 10.—Whenever there is a fog, whether by day or night, the fog-signals described below shall be carried and used, and shall be sounded at least every five minutes, viz.:—(a.) Steamships under way shall use a steam-whistle placed before the funnel, and not less than eight feet from the deck.(b.) Sailing-vessels under way shall use a fog-horn.(c.) Steamships and sailing-ships, when not under way shall use a bell.STEERING AND SAILING RULES.TWO SAILING-SHIPS MEETING.Art. 11.—If two sailing-ships are meeting end on, or nearly end on, so as to involve risk of collision, the helms of both shall be put to port, so that each may pass on the port side of the other.TWO SAILING-SHIPS CROSSING.Art. 12.—When two sailing-ships are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, then, if they have the wind on different sides, the ship with the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the ship with the wind on the starboard side,exceptin the case in which the ship with the wind on the port side is close-hauled, and the other ship free, in which case the latter ship shall keep out of the way. But if they have the wind on the same side, or if one of them has the wind aft, the ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship which is to leeward.SAILING-SHIP AND SHIP UNDER STEAM.Art. 15.—If two ships, one of which is a sailing-ship and the other a steamship, are proceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision, the steamship shall keep out of the way of the sailing-ship.SHIPS UNDER STEAM TO SLACK SPEED.Art. 16.—Every steamship, when approaching another ship so as to involve risk of collision, shall slacken her speed, or, if necessary, stop and reverse; and every steamship shall, when in a fog, go at a moderate speed.VESSELS OVERTAKING OTHER VESSELS.Art. 17.—Every vessel overtaking any other vessel shall keep out of the way of the said last-mentioned vessel.CONSTRUCTION OF ARTICLES 12, 15, AND 17.Art. 18.—When, by the above rules, one of two ships is to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her course, subject to the qualifications contained in the following article:—PROVISO TO SAVE SPECIAL CASES.Art. 19.—In obeying and construing these rules, dueregard must be had to all dangers of navigation, and due regard must also be had to any special circumstances which may exist in any particular case, rendering a departure from the above rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger.NO SHIP UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES TO NEGLECT PROPER PRECAUTIONS.Art. 20.—Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any ship, or the owner or master, or crew thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a proper lookout, or of the neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the case.
Article 2.—The lights mentioned in the following articles, and no others, shall be carried in all weathers between sunset and sunrise.
Art. 3.—All steam vessels, when under way, shall carry
(a.) At the foremast head a bright white light, so fixed as to show a uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of twenty points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light ten points on each side of the ship, viz., from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on either side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least five miles.
(b.) On the starboard side a green light, so constructed as to throw a uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles.
(c.) On the port side a red light, so constructed as to show a uniform, unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the port side; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles.
Note.To fix firmly in the mind the side of the vessel on which the lights belong, the following, although original, is recommended:Port wineis red, and theRED LIGHTis always on thePORT SIDE.
(d.) The said green and red side-lights shall be fitted with inboard screens, projecting at least three feet forward from the light, so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the bow.
Art. 4.—Steamships, when towing other ships, shall carry two bright white masthead lights vertically, in addition to their side-lights, so as to distinguish them from other steamships.
Art. 5.—Sailing-vessels under way, or being towed, shall carry the same lights as steamships under way, with the exception of the white masthead lights, which they shall never carry.
Art. 6.—Whenever, as in the case of small vessels during bad weather, the green and red lights cannot be fixed, these lights shall be kept on deck, on their respective sides of the vessel, ready for instant exhibition; and shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in such manner as to make them most visible, and so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the starboard side. To make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy, they shall each be painted outside with the color of the light they respectively contain, and shall be provided with suitable screens.
Art. 7.—Ships, whether steamships or sailing-ships, when at anchor in roadsteads or fairways, shall, between sunset and sunrise, exhibit where it can best be seen, but at a height not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white light in a globular lantern of eight inches in diameter, and so constructed as to show a clear, uniform, and unbroken light visible all around the horizon, and at a distance of at least one mile.
Art. 8.—Sailing pilot-vessels shall not carry the lights required for other sailing-vessels, but shall carry a white light at the masthead, visible all around the horizon; and shall also exhibit a flare-up light every fifteen minutes.
Art. 9.—Open fishing-boats and other open boats shall not be required to carry side-lights required for other vessels, but shall, if they do not carry such lights, carry a lantern having a green slide on the one side, and a red slide on the other side; and, on the approach of or to other vessels, such lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision; so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the starboard side. Fishing-vessels and open boats when at anchor, or attached to their nets, and stationary, shall exhibit a bright white light. Fishing-vessels and open boats shall, however, not be prevented from using a flare-up light in addition, if considered expedient.
Art. 10.—Whenever there is a fog, whether by day or night, the fog-signals described below shall be carried and used, and shall be sounded at least every five minutes, viz.:—
(a.) Steamships under way shall use a steam-whistle placed before the funnel, and not less than eight feet from the deck.
(b.) Sailing-vessels under way shall use a fog-horn.
(c.) Steamships and sailing-ships, when not under way shall use a bell.
Art. 11.—If two sailing-ships are meeting end on, or nearly end on, so as to involve risk of collision, the helms of both shall be put to port, so that each may pass on the port side of the other.
Art. 12.—When two sailing-ships are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, then, if they have the wind on different sides, the ship with the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the ship with the wind on the starboard side,exceptin the case in which the ship with the wind on the port side is close-hauled, and the other ship free, in which case the latter ship shall keep out of the way. But if they have the wind on the same side, or if one of them has the wind aft, the ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship which is to leeward.
Art. 15.—If two ships, one of which is a sailing-ship and the other a steamship, are proceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision, the steamship shall keep out of the way of the sailing-ship.
Art. 16.—Every steamship, when approaching another ship so as to involve risk of collision, shall slacken her speed, or, if necessary, stop and reverse; and every steamship shall, when in a fog, go at a moderate speed.
Art. 17.—Every vessel overtaking any other vessel shall keep out of the way of the said last-mentioned vessel.
Art. 18.—When, by the above rules, one of two ships is to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her course, subject to the qualifications contained in the following article:—
Art. 19.—In obeying and construing these rules, dueregard must be had to all dangers of navigation, and due regard must also be had to any special circumstances which may exist in any particular case, rendering a departure from the above rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger.
Art. 20.—Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any ship, or the owner or master, or crew thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a proper lookout, or of the neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the case.
The following diagrams are designed to illustrate the use of the lights carried by vessels at sea as prescribed in the Regulations above, and the manner in which they indicate to each vessel the position and course of the other.
Use of lights
Fig. 1(when theredandgreen lightsare both seen).—A sees aredandgreenlight ahead. A knows that a vessel is approaching him on a course directly opposite to the one he is steering, as B. If A sees awhite masthead lightabove theredandgreen lights, he knows that the vessel B is a steamer. A should put his helm to port; and B, seeing the same lights on board of A, should by the same rule put his helm to port also.
Fig. 2(when thered lightonly is seen).—A sees ared lightahead or on the port bow. Aknows that either, first, a vessel is approaching him on his port bow, as B, or, second, a vessel is crossing his bows to port in some direction, as D D' D" (Fig. 3). If A sees awhite masthead lightabove thered light, he knows that the vessel is a steamer, and is either approaching in the same direction as B (Fig 2), or is crossing to port in the same direction as D D' D" (Fig. 3).
In the first position (Fig. 2) A sees B a little on the port bow, B'sred lightexposed, and, by the diagrams, B should see A'sred lightas well; in which case both vessels should put their helms to port.
In the second position (Fig. 3) A sees D on his starboard bow, and, from the fact that he only sees D'sred light, he knows that D must be steering in some direction, as at D D' D"; at the same time, D D' D" will see A'sgreen light on his port bow.
In this case, A, having D clearly on his starboard bow, should put his helm to starboard to turn from D, and D, having A clearly on his port bow, should put his helm to port to turn to starboard from A.
Fig. 4(when thegreen lightis seen, and thered lightis not seen).—A sees agreen lightahead, or on his bow. A knows that either, first, a vessel is approaching him on his starboard bow, as B, or, second, that a vessel is crossing his bow in some direction to starboard, as D D' D" (Fig. 5).
If A sees awhite masthead lightabove thegreen light, A knows that the vessel is a steamer, and is either approaching him in the same direction as B, or is crossing to starboard in some direction, as D D' D".
In thefirst positionA sees B on his starboard bow, B'sgreen lightexposed, and, by the diagram, B should see A'sgreen lightas well; in which case both vessels should put their helms to starboard.
In thesecond positionA sees D on his port bow, and, from the fact that he only sees D'sgreen light, he knows that D must be steering in some direction, as D D' D"; at the same time D will see A'sred lighton his starboard bow. In this case A, having D clearly on his port bow, should put his helm to port to turn from D; and D, having A clearly on his starboard bow, should put his helm to starboard to turn to port from A.
When lying in harbor in a well-ordered and disciplined yacht, considerable ceremony is made in hauling down the colors at sunset, and hoisting them at sunrise. It is customary to have this done with great exactness, and to the very minute often, at which the sun rises or sets, as ascertained by the nautical almanac, at the discharge of a swivel or small cannon; when all the colors aloft, including the ensign and private signal, should commence to descend towards the deck together, and at the samerate of speed. To execute this graceful ceremony it becomes necessary to post two hands at each of the signal-halliards,—one to haul down the color, the other to check it on its descent, so as to have it move with the same speed as the ensign, by which all other colors are regulated; then, with two hands to each flag, with the signal-halliards cast off, and every thing clear, and ready to lower away, another hand is placed at the swivel, and when the second-hand of one's watch touches the minute of sunset, the command "Fire!" is given, and down drop gracefully and slowly all the colors that are aloft. They may be set in the morning in the same way, or may be made up in a bundle on deck, and hoisted to their position aloft, when at a given signal, or discharge of a cannon, the stop is jerked asunder, and they are unfolded to the breeze at the same instant of time. This is a more graceful method than hoisting them up from deck, which, at the best, causes a jerky movement of the bunting.
In a sloop-yacht the ensign is carried always at the end of the gaff, when hoisted; and the burgee, or private signal, at the topmast head.
When passing a vessel at sea that has her colors set, it is always courtesy to bend on one's own, and, as the nearest point is reached, lower the ensign half way towards the deck, and then hoist it back again to its position at the peak. This is called "dipping the colors;" and the smaller vessel should always be the one to offer the courtesy first.
If a man-of-war is met, care should be taken to be always the first; and here it is proper to dip one's ensign three times, as is it also to any large and important vessel, such as an European steamer moving along in all her majesty: she will not neglect to answer the politeness.
In entering harbor, especially if there are other yachts lying at anchor, it has become customary, at the same moment that the anchor is dropped, to discharge a gun announcing one's arrival; and, if there are other yachts present to whom the yacht is known, she will receive probably a salute from each in return.
In coming alongside of a yacht at anchor, all persons who are not guests of the captain, or especially invited, or of some rank or consequence, should come to the port gangway. The starboard side of a vessel at anchor is the captain's side, as is that side of the deck which is the windward-side when she is under way. Ladies always come on board on the starboard side, if the yacht be large enough to enter into all these niceties of quarterdeck etiquette.
Every yacht that is large enough to admit of it should be fitted with a ship's clock with watch movement, a swinging-lamp, and an aneroid barometer; all of which are of great use,—the clock to give the time which courses have been sailed; the lamp, light to the chart upon the table; and the barometer, admonition of a change in the weather.
It is of great importance that an "anchor-watch," as it is called, should be kept on all yachts, for many reasons. For instance, to see that none of the sails get adrift in the night, should it come on to blow; and to see that the anchor holds well, or to pay out more cable, if necessary; to watch the lantern in the fore-rigging, and take care that it does not go out, leaving the yacht at the mercy of the first lumber-man that may come pitching into her.
Do not anchor too near the shore, so that good sea-room cannot be obtained, should it be desired to get under way, to run out of the harbor, or to pay out cable to hold on.
It is very easy to row to the shore in a tender, with the yacht well out, but very hard to make an inch sometimes, when it becomes a lee-shore.
These may seem trivial matters to be so careful about; but it is looking out for all contingencies, and yet being without a particle of fear, that makes the true yachtman,—always ready, and every thing always on hand. It is for this very reason of being prepared, that fear is driven out; whilst, with the careless one, in times of emergency the ropes foul, the gaskets are missing, the anchor is not bent on, the lamp wants oil, the lead-line can't be found, and the jib-halliards, not being properly belayed and coiled down, unreve from the masthead block, and every thing is "at sixes and at sevens."
Cross-Bearings.—Two Examples.—Table of Proportional Distances.—Table for Determining the Distance that an Object at Sea can be seen in Statute Miles.—Determining Distance by the Flash of a Gun.—To find the Difference between the True and Apparent Direction of the Wind.—To find the Distance of an Object on Shore from the Yacht, by two Bearings of the Compass.—Use of the Charts.—Soundings.—Lead Line.—Eight Bells and Watch and Watch.—Boxing the Compass.—Velocity of the Wind.—The Log Reel and Half-minute Glass.—Buoys.
Cross-Bearings.—Two Examples.—Table of Proportional Distances.—Table for Determining the Distance that an Object at Sea can be seen in Statute Miles.—Determining Distance by the Flash of a Gun.—To find the Difference between the True and Apparent Direction of the Wind.—To find the Distance of an Object on Shore from the Yacht, by two Bearings of the Compass.—Use of the Charts.—Soundings.—Lead Line.—Eight Bells and Watch and Watch.—Boxing the Compass.—Velocity of the Wind.—The Log Reel and Half-minute Glass.—Buoys.
Perhaps there is nothing more useful in simple coast-sailing and entering harbors than to know how to find one's exact position upon the chart, at a moment's notice, by means of taking what is calledcross-bearings. Nothing is necessary for this purpose, but a pair of parallel-rulers, a compass, and a sight of any two well-defined objects in view, that may be known upon the chart by their general relative positions, such as lighthouses, lightships, buoys, churches, headlands, &c.
Theparallel-rulersare two rulers attached bymeans of two brass swivels, so that they can be moved over the surface of a chart in any parallel direction to that from which they are first started; and are used to define direction upon any part of the chart. For instance, being placed upon the printed compass upon the chart, say upon the line of N.W. and S.E., they can be moved about the chart, carrying this same direction N.W. and S.E., to any other part of the chart. The two objects decided upon to be taken should be in such a direction as to form somewhat nearly a right angle with the yacht to obtain the most perfect results. All depends upon the aptitude with which the observer canlinethe object to be observed, i.e., its bearing by compass.
The writer knows of nothing so important and useful as this simple method of knowing just where one is at any moment, and thus be enabled to know just how to steer to avoid all dangers. These sights, or cross-bearings, can be taken every ten minutes with ease in fine weather, and the position of the yacht exactly defined.