CHAPTER V.

Fig. 51—Top edge arranged for gilding.

Besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books; a piece of gauze is stretched across a frame, passed over the hair, and then the gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on. Round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or horse-hairs stretched on a frame. The threads can be shifted to the short sides of the frame; they are adjusted to the width of the edge, allowing for the rounding, and are slightly greased by passing over the hair, and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges. Just before laying on the gold, the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the shape of the edge. Then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly and truly laid on.

This method is not exactly difficult, but it is not quite so safe as laying on with a gilder's tip, especially for very large edges.

The simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of paper. This has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips being made ready for laying on at one time. Select a piece of stiff and not too thin paper, cut into strips about the width of the strips of the gold-leaf, draw one side of the paper across the hair, and then take up the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the paper strip. After glairing, strip by strip is laid on.

For very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed gold. Such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared; in particular, they are not scraped, but rubbed down with sand-paper. Blood serum is used instead of white of egg; this is prepared by allowing ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid.

Aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution: one tablet of gelatine to 1/4 litre of water.

Gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted. This work comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in this book.

All other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as gilt edges. In good work this must always be done.

In small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico, which is cut into strips of 2 cm. wide right across the pattern, and one edge is pasted round a thin cord. After drying, pieces the exact size of the back of the book are cut off. The back of the book at the head is glued with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where book and cover join.

Fig. 52—Headband shears.Fig. 52—Headband shears.

Woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer necessary for the binder to make his own. Thecheaper kinds are woven of cotton, and of these there are bands made which have two pads, each edge having a different colour. This band is cut along the middle for use; for the rest, it is cut into pieces according to the width of the book and then glued on to the back. Better kinds in silk are only woven on one side, therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary. For work in quantities, the headbands are cut the size of the back with the adjustable headband shears.

For extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk. This work can only be learned by practice, although its execution is not difficult; such books are only headbanded after boarding.

To make the filling for the headband, cut into strips pieces of vellum which have been pasted together, between which a piece of tough, thin pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen. These strips are cut a little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the width of the back. So as to facilitate the work, the strip is at once curved to the rounding of the back.

Take two silk threads of the kind sold as "Cordonnet" silk, each thread of a different colour. Both threads are threaded in a sewing needle, the threads taken double, the ends of both double threads knotted together. The book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little outwards. The needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out to the knots. Thus one thread is always above and another below. The strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head, the thread is brought over from below, and is stitched from above to below close to the head, with the hanging needle through the first sheetunder the kettle stitch outwards. Bring the same thread once more up over the strip, let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge, taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first, bringing it out underneath the vellum strip. By this, the first thread is firmly drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning. The second thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the sheet; it is taken back under the vellum strip once, and at the second time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain. Thus the work goes on; after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back and pasted down. The first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted so that they do not show on the back. It is essential that the vellum strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge, and also that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular.

Fig. 53—Headband working.

It is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third thread of another colour in the centre of the headband. Any vellum projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book.

Some books are given a marker; this is made of silk ribbon or of a cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose. It is cut long enough to allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there, and at the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally opposite. The marker is glued on before headbanding.

The boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways, apart from casing,i.e., fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases.

1. Fastening upon bands (ordinary fastening).2. Fastening below bands (fastening on a deep groove).3. Drawing the bands through the boards (fastening with laced bands).

The boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp, excepting in a few districts in Pomerania and East Prussia where wood boards are still occasionally made. Of these pulp boards the better kinds are called mill-boards; the cheaper are called straw-boards. Leather boards are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle. The boards may be cut to size before fastening on, or this may be done even after the fastening on has been completed. The former is generally practised where there is a board-cutting machine, but even then further attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of "extra" work.

The board-cutting machine is a very useful ally, for by the aid of quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly true.

The boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book, marked out, and cut perfectly rectangular. Theboards must slightly project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford sufficient protection to the book. The margins so projecting are called the squares. Small books are allowed a small square, as a matter of course, and large books a square correspondingly larger.

Fig. 54—Board-cutting machine.Fig. 54—Board-cutting machine.

Fig. 54—Board-cutting machine.

Where there is no board-cutting machine, the boards must be cut to size with the knife upon a cutting-board, using a straight edge for the line.

The knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife—Henckel Bros.' Solingen make is the best. These knives—both in fixed and removable wooden handles—are made of "glass hard" steel. If the point is worn away, a piece about 1/2 cm. long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron edge, thus making a fresh edge. The cutting-boards must be of maple, beech, or pear tree.

If it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book, it must be cut about 1 cm. larger each way so as to allow for further trimming.

Fastening the boards to the book is called "boarding." This can generally be done as well with paste as with glue; the former is preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying. Glueing is quicker, but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards.

For ordinary fixing on the bands, the insides of the boards are pasted to about 3 cm. in width, the bands also pasted, and the board laid on, bringing it well up to the groove. If it is intended to glue up, the bands are also glued, provided they have not already been glued on—a method preferred by many experienced hands. The bands must be pasted so that they radiate from the back without any tangle; a morsel of paste the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or point of a knife, the band smoothed down, and the thing is done. After glueing-up, the book is pressed between boards. If zinc plates are placed under the boards whilst pressing, the pasted parts will be pressed quite smooth and shiny.

Fig. 55—Spring back.Fig. 55—Spring back.

For cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on. To make the covering material of the back more lasting, a back is made up of strong wrappers or some other tough material, which extends over the back underneath the cover. This backing material must be cut 4 to 5 cm. wider than the width of the back and about 1 cm. longer each way than the book. This strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a sharp knife on the so-called paring stone. A second strip—the backing—of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider strip. The overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the middle, close by the inner packing, and thecrease well pressed down with the folder. These overlapping edges are then turned back again and a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to the middle about 2 to 3 mm. according to the thickness of the cover. If the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule, a second parallel fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better. The back in section appears as illustrated in Fig. 55 after the middle part of the packing has undergone the necessary rounding.

Fig. 56—Boarded book.Fig. 56—Boarded book.

Rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various degrees of convexity, or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under a broad folder. Such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the groove and on the back. This is the hollow back. Before fastening it to the book, the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the back; good packing-paper is the best. Newspapers and loose advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not be used. The book is glued and the paper laid on and glued. In doing a large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted on.

Many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board. Very frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers. It is better to raise the flaps of the back, paste the tear off of the end paper, paste the bands on to it, and the loose flaps as well, and then paste this on the outside and set the board on it. The latter must be set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in the joint. The back, therefore, is a hollow archstretching over the book from groove to groove, the loose flaps of the packing adhering between book and board. The book is pressed until thoroughly dry—best between zinc plates.

Fig. 57—Section of edge rule.Fig. 57—Section of edge rule.

For shaping boarded books an edge rule is used. This is a thin iron rule not much longer than the width of the book. On the long edge an iron pin about the width of the edge is soldered. This tool is inserted between book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book; if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as much larger than the book as is the width of the rule.

Knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards. The edge must be clean and square.

If the boarded book has a hollow back, first one end is shaped and the projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with the shears, and then the other end is shaped.

Boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a width of about 3 cm., placing them direct on the book, backing them firmly into the groove, and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon the boards. A folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part, a piece of zinc plate over it, and the book then pressed. The double leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate, which bands are particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned after previous use.

Boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper; this is done with paste. When packing, a narrow strip of paper must be brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside, so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or swell.

This is also done when boarding, as follows:—

At the present time, all good half or whole leather bindingshave the boards laced through in good shops. At the outset the bands must be left with longer ends for this—5 cm. at least on each side. A parallel line is marked on the board along the back about 6 to 8 mm. from the groove. The board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the groove, and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked lines. The board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced slanting inwards—about half right angle—with a pointed awl. The board is turned, and sideways, near every first hole, a second hole is made which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board. The bands are drawn through these holes, and to be able to do this the bands must be well pasted and twisted to a point; cutting off the extreme ends of the bands will facilitate the drawing through. To draw the bands quite firm and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove, the bands drawn through as tight as possible, and in this position—that is, with the boards half open—they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed. The principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in the holes, but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat. The boards are now slowly closed, the ends of the bands projecting at the outside are cut off short, and the book pressed, using zinc plates inside and out.

Fig. 58—English style of lacing boards.

The French method of lacing is not much practised in other countries; it is somewhat more roundabout, and is donebefore cutting—immediately after glueing up. The boards are each shifted to right or left for cutting and cut together. By so doing, the edges always correspond exactly to the back groove.

Band hole diagram

For every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle. The awl holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle. The band must describe this course. The end is pushed under the piece of the band seen on the inside of the board, the bands drawn tight, with board standing upright as before described, also well knocked down in the same way, and the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn. The book is then pressed between zinc plates.

Formerly only one way of making the cover was known, and that was the gradual making of it on the book itself. This has been considerably changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for publishers' requirements. Book and cover are now in many cases made separately, the former being afterwards glued into its cover or "cased."

The publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil, without which we cannot get along and which we have got to take into account. In spite of it, bindings are still being produced in the old approved way, particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops. Before we proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming, we must know how it is intended to treat the book. In the preceding chapter we have learned the methods of boarding, and this now leads to the methods of covering. Previous to that, however, we would like to give a plan showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration, and then the chapter on the covers may be given (see plan on page 94).

Table of Headings:Col. A: Folding. Pulling to pieces.Col. B: Sewing.Col. C: Holländering.Col. D: Gluing. Pasting.Col. E: Pressing. Cutting.Col. F: Marbling and gilding edges.Col. G: Rounding. Backing.Col. H: Boarding.

Work on the book.First stage.Secondstage.Style of Binding.ABCDEFGHBrochure——Brochure Paper boards—————School books————Half cloth (bound)———————Half cloth (cased)——————Whole cloth (bound)———————Whole cloth (cased)——————Half leather———————Half calf, extra———————Whole leather———————Publishers' cases——————

Table of Headings:Col. I: Making the case.Col. J: Covering.Col. K: Pressing.Col. L: Preparing the leather.Col. M: Covering.Col. N: Fastening the book in the cover.Col. O: Pasting down.Col. P: Jointing.Col. Q: Pasting down end papers.Col. R: Hand tooling and decorating.

Work on the Cover.Casing.Covering.Finishing.Style of Binding.IJKLMNOPQRBrochure—Brochure Paper boards—School books———Half cloth (bound)——Half cloth (cased)————Whole cloth (bound)———Whole cloth (cased)—————Half leather————Half calf, extra—————Whole leather————Publishers' cases——————

The boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as when cutting for glueing; a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers is cut for the back. The width of the back from first to last sheet is carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper, the dividers are adjusted to the measure, and this is transferred to the wrapping paper. The packing is cut to suit the boards in height. When cloth only is used for the cover, the cloth is cut 2 to 2-1/2 cm. longer and about 4 cm. wider than the packing. The width of the back depends upon the question of cost or other consideration. In whole-cloth bindings the cloth is, of course, cut in one piece and 1 to 1-1/2 cm. larger all round than the boards and back taken together. Glue is always used for cloth. As piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing, a touch of glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little. These corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and prevent the edges from being smeared. In glueing cloth it must be seen that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations.

For covers which have only the back made, the packing is laid upon the middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at side of it, leaving, however, as much space between as is required by the joint and the thickness of the boards. As a rule, the space required will be as much as the thickness of the board. In making leather backs one allows a little more.

The cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards have been laid on, and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the folder.

Turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over the edge of the table, and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the edges of the boards with a sliding motion, whilst the forefingers hold the cover underneath.

Whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way, but in this case the corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration.

Fig. 60—Corners cut for turning in.

The cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the thickness of the board remains. Thick boards have therefore more cloth left at the corners than thin ones.

Fig. 61—Corners: Right and wrong.

The top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge. At the corners, the cloth is nipped a little with the folder, without, however, making an oblique fold; there should rather be a hollow round turn-over remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge, then from the corner slanting to the board.

The edges must always be turned in quite sharp; there must never be a hollow place on the edge of the board. On the other hand, it looks bad if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder, at least with cloth; it is different with leather.

The turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under paper with the folder. When cloth has once been glued it must not be allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together, which renders it practically unworkable.

The finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry; only when the drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords. The latest in this work is a case machine which turns out 550 cases per hour.

When leather is used, it must first be pared, that is to say, the parts to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually thinned.

Fig. 62—Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.

The paring knife, of which there are various kinds, is used for this work. The best known and the most generally used are the Offenbach and the Berlin, both very much alike except for a slight difference in the edge. The quickest paring knife is made after the French pattern.

This knife is called a "thrusting" knife because of the manner of using it, in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion; but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting motion. The under side of the paring knife is covered with leather.

A lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which to pare the leather. The stone is set in a frame under which there is a bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work backwards whilst in use. All edges are rounded off and the surface is ground and polished.

Ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather. It should not be forgotten that the latter has a grain, though very few bookbinders pay any heed to this. With many leathers it is a very difficult matter to pare against the grain, especially pig-skin and cow-hide. One may generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it stretches least. The grain runs from the back to the sides. The Offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the Berlin knife, the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the blade. See manner of holding the knife inFig. 62.

Quick working is an advantage of the Offenbach knife, which is due to the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the stone, and paring proceeds from left to right, the left hand at the same time helping to push the knife. The Berlin make pares from right to left; here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather, the point of the knife inclining to the leather; with the other the edge is cut over slantingly with the point outwards.

To use the French knife requires more practice; the cutting edge is almost at right angles to the knife, and, besides, the method of holding it is somewhat unusual. Forparing all thick leathers or large surfaces it surpasses all other makes in execution. To make the leather more workable for paring it is previously manipulated, that is to say, it is turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro, whilst firm pressure is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand, thus making it pliable.

Fig. 63—Paring with French knife.

In an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used; these do not require very much paring, which is only necessary for pig-skin and the finest moroccos. The latter leather is narrowly pared about 2 to 3 mm. wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings. Only the back is pared the whole width, therefore 1 to 1-1/2 cm. has to be nicely gradated. Broken places, inequalities of the edge, or even holes to be filled in, greatly add to the difficulty of the work.

In the thicker skins also—thick places often occur in the otherwise thin skins—the joint must be thinned down. The packing is laid upon the wrong side of the leather and itsposition marked out with the folder. The leather is pared about 1 cm. in width along this line, that is to say, it is pared so that 1/2 cm. right and left along the mark the thickness of the leather is reduced.

As a rule, first-class books are not provided with a cover made in advance, and even those described by publishers as "super extra" do not rise above morocco goat.

We have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the publishers' bindings: Goat-skin (of oriental hybrid sheep), morocco goat, sheep-skin (unsplit sheep-skin), and split sheep-skin [or so-called skivers]. There is another goat-skin, not Levanted, sold and used under the name "bastard" leather. "Levanting" means to imitate by pressing the grain natural to the skins from the Levant. Most kinds of our leather receive their grain by such process.

For whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the edges, the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary, and also at the corners. The leather corners are cut slant-wise at the outset, and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at the edge of the board.

In leather bindings the board, as well as the back packing, is glued on, rubbed down, and the edges then pasted and turned in, the leather is rubbed down sharply in the joint, the back, and on the edges; but a folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself.

It frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners; in this case, the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is slightly different. The two neighbouring edges are turned in. The leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square corners, and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the edges in little folds, using a pointed folder for the work.

Corner cloth diagram

Books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get cornersof the same material as is used for the back. Cloth corners are not cut singly, but a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape(a) or, better(b), placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a little over the corner of the board. First of all, the lappets of the top and bottom edges are turned in, the corners nipped in the manner shown, and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in. Leather corners are treated in the same way, but these are cut from waste pieces according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose, and then pared down.

Corner cloth diagram

Glue is used for fixing on cloth corners, but strong paste is always used for leather. All edges and corners are well rubbed down with the folder and left smooth and sharp, but, on the other hand, the grain on the board side must be left uninjured. Insufficient paring of the corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick edges; such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful workman.

Corner cloth diagram

Books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with paper; the latter often with cloth. When cloth sides are used, the material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour and texture. On each side to be turned in the paper is cut 1 to 1-1/2 cm. larger than the surface of the board to be covered. The paper is cut along the back with the knife and rule. The corners are turned down in half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners and somewhat smaller than these, and cut off with the shears as shown in the illustration, using the fold as a guide.

Half Cloth half leather corner diagram

In ordinary work with very small corners, especially in large quantities, the corners may simply be cut off diagonally, and if there are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife and rule or with the machine.

As a trade article for the publishers, the finished cover is lined with paper on the inside, both for the sake of improved appearance and to prevent the drawing outwards. For every board a sheet of paper is cut about 1/2 cm. smaller than the board and pasted on. The covers are placed between boards to dry.

Covers are generally decorated in some way; as a rule by means of the blocking press. Where they get any hand tooling, it is always done on the book when bound, for which no case is made in advance. Simple gold lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted; such work is known as "filleting."

We make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling. The latter is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use of gold, whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared leather or other surface, using gold leaf.

Skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary for the decoration and inscription.

The blocks, &c., are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly arranged sets; but still it is essential that the finisher should possess certain artistic taste and feeling, especially in making up the lettering. It must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the principal part (word or line) must be distinguished by larger or heavier type; furthermore, two lines of equal length must never appear in an inscription. Short words (the, and, for, &c.) worked into an inscription as separate lines add considerably to its appearance. See pp. 148 to 153 for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering. The same applies to the arrangement of all lettering.

The blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the press—the platen.

To enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may have slipped, there is a draw-out platemade in all modern blocking presses. The engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but with cobblers' wax. The following is a practical way of managing the ornamental blocks: On a thin but very strong board about the size of the article to be blocked, the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost, the engraved face being next to the board. This board is fixed with wax exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press—the table. By "exactly in the centre" it is to be understood that the centre of the various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the draw-out plate. If there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper than to the lower side of the plate, the latter must be lowered a little—in a word, the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive equal pressure. It is only by making a few trials that one can learn exactly what is right.

The press should be warmed by this time, and it is well to slide in the table with the blocks adjusted upon it, and to let it remain under light pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of moisture may be seen on either. Now put a little wax on each block, lay over them a piece of stout wrapping paper, cardboard, or similar stuff, push in and press gently; the wrapper also may be waxed. After about five minutes, open the press to see whether all parts have stuck. Until this takes place the press must remain closed. If, however, all pieces are sticking fast, draw out the table and examine the imprint of each particular part to see whether the pressure is equal; if this is not so, it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing of the plate and, if necessary, to rectify it; otherwise, pieces of paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is obtained.

This done, the back of the set-up blocks, or the wrappers affixed thereto, is waxed at as many places as required, orrather as far as the set-up blocks extend, the plate pushed in, and the press closed until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate. The lighter this first impression is made, the easier it will be to detect any inequality on the table (or matrix) and to set it right by backing up with paper.

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