Figs. 73 and 74—Simple line designs.Figs. 73 and 74—Simple line designs.
Each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece of leather.
The impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place from the beginning, then that part was too damp. Success depends before everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating of the tool.
With ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this method of finishing.
After the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth. If there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and the dark ones become even darker.
Where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same time. It is advisable—especially for novices—to apply the die without heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die lukewarm as in filleting. Tooling with dies is essentially different from filleting in the method of execution. The fillet polishes whilst running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must receive an equally good impression. In order to secure a good impression from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without hesitating as to where to begin. To ensure all parts of the tool being well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. If too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will turn out lighter. By allowing the heated die to remain long on the surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. Such places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained. Care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling," that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not lead to indistinctness of outline.
Blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the needs of the less wealthy just as it was 300 years ago, for in such a style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty.
Fig. 75—Half-calf extra tooled in blind.Fig. 75—Half-calf extra tooled in blind.
Fig. 76—Leather binding with simple design in blind.Fig. 76—Leather binding with simple design in blind.
Now for the hand finishing. It is first of all necessary that we should be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. For the tooling of long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns. Besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies—the rows of letters with the type-holder in which these are set.All these tools are heated over a flame—best over gas—to the temperature suited to the material operated upon. To make the gold adhere, the material to be tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part vinegar to three parts white of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered, as is done in blocking. Other materials for sizing will be dealt with later.
Fig. 77—Simple gold tooling on sides.Fig. 77—Simple gold tooling on sides.
Lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or "filleting."
The line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in.
Fig. 78—Tooled cover.Fig. 78—Tooled cover.
The gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about 1 cm. wide, and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the circumference of the roll, and then rolledoff with a firm and even pressure on to the place intended.
This is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag.
Fig. 79—Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Fig. 79—Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
Near the finishing stove should stand—as also for blind tooling—a shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those sold with bottles of gum. A drop of water is thrown from this brush on to the hot tool in order to test its heat. Cloth is printed with fairly hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. Goat-skin requires a heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissingwould indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins will bear only moderate heat. If the roll was too hot, the gold would have no brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. Calf requires the same heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying the tool. The roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held in the right hand. When getting into position for an impression the thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support.
Fig. 80—Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.Fig. 80—Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.
A line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder, picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. The rolls have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these must always be joined exactly. Rolls for two or more lines must print the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the beginning and the other for the end. Of course it is impossible to print long lines with only one revolution of the roll. The roll is run along the line from starting point untilnear the end, lifted off, and again placed on the spot just quitted, a little behind the starting point of the roll, so that this part does not show. This is repeated as often as the length of the line necessitates. In order to secure good corners, the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is used for the corner itself. At no point should one be able to see where the roll was set on or taken off, and the result should be a straight, even line, showing no trace of inequality.
Fig. 81—Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Fig. 81—Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
For single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previouslyheated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool.
Places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized afresh and once more tooled. The beginner generally finds that the gold does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he hesitated too long on commencing.
It has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is insufficient to fulfil this purpose—not, indeed, because it is unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that it would take badly and unequally.
Just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are old, long-stocked skins. If the finisher knows that such a piece of leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural fatty matter and become more supple. This oiling, of course, is only practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become darker. A skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few days.
At any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue. It must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these make the leather dull.
Vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. This sizing must be used very thin and should not be quite cold. In using ordinary glue, two drops of mediumstrength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm water will suffice.
Many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat the whole surface; personally, however, I would only recommend it for unpolished calf—but here there is a real necessity for it. In this case it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge—not new, and free from grit—and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the ball of the hand. The surplus is quickly washed off with clean water.
Large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because this sizing leaves no lines behind. About 10 grammes of tragacanth to 1/4 litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well stirred. This solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed in, neither is it subsequently washed off.
These two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases.
There are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid sizing, particularly silk and velvet. The latter is no longer finished by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style.
For gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is required.
Although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a general rule for each kind.
We will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of heat: Lukewarm,i.e., not the slightest hissing when tested; medium,i.e., just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. In the following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the approximately exact temperature of the tools is given.
Cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of egg): medium heat.
Sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. Calf (white of egg): hot.
Morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat.
Morocco, Levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size—painted in, white of egg): lukewarm.
Pig-skin, Russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm.
Mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. As a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. In the very best shops there is still another method. The leather is washed down with tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot.
Vellum requires a special treatment. On the day before it is to be finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling, sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm.
When tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled lukewarm.
The great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt it for leather and cloth also. This practice is objectionable, and the conscientious finisher will always avoid it. It may be excused when a name has to be printed on a Prayer-book or similar article in a hurry, or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a sign of incompetence.
Tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly affects this material. Its brightness vanishesentirely—a thing that never happens when white of egg has been used.
It must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done slowly, and with hot tools quickly. Nearly all inexperienced finishers use too hot tools.
Fig. 82—Leather binding with fern motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Fig. 82—Leather binding with fern motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
So far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling with a roll. Besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. Nearly all beginners are unreasonably afraid to use thegouge. Any one able to use the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. A genuine technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be joined to another. Moreover, the joining of one curve to another must not be seen.
Every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least 20 pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. The gouges are chosen according to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use.
The tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against.
Double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which must be finished with single curves.
Fig. 83—Simple gold tooling on squares.Fig. 83—Simple gold tooling on squares.
Faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering.
Fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or ornamental lines. It is the practice of the old school to widen the impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder. This practice is fundamentally wrong. Work finished in this way will never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and fillets.
Besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are generally ornamented in extra work. A simple but very effective decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edgeof the board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. To do this the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated—not hissing—and then polished with long even strokes.
Fig. 84—Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.Fig. 84—Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.
Figs. 85 and 86—Two designs in gold for squares.Figs. 85 and 86—Two designs in gold for squares.
With the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced, and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well as on the outside cover. Such work, however, does not come within the limits of this treatise. We must be satisfied with giving a few illustrations of the less elaborate designs. Rolls are very often used in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the space, and about this we must say a few words. Rolls with apattern have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run on of any length without a break. For smaller margins and cheap work the rolls are frequently run over each other. This saves time but it does not produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of crossing. It is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the leaf at the corner. The design is thus made to join together at the corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its impression as far as the gold goes. For extra work, however, a die suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. With a little skill, the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. The edge is then cleaned with thegold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner die and then tooled. By this method the design at the corner is correctly finished.
Figs. 87, 88, and 89—Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub Title.Figs. 87, 88, and 89—Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub Title.
Gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity. For this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed to the bench.
Fig. 90—Type-holder with centre position.Fig. 90—Type-holder with centre position.
To ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. The bands are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as raised bands. With a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately upon a strip of cardboard. Blind lines are made upon cloth before the latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then tool with lukewarm fillets. In making lines, the fillets may be drawn to and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. Gold lines or ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in gold. For simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back.
Lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience. The letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing. The type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating stove, for in Germany letters made of lead are still most generally used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove. Moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent their falling out. The heat expands them and they are then locked quite firmly enough in the type-holder.
In arranging the letters the following general rules should be observed:—
1.—Always use types from the same fount in a title.2.—For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic letters; for books printed in Latin types use the same for lettering.3.—All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in caps. only.4.—Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.5.—Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's name.6.—Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name.
1.—Always use types from the same fount in a title.
2.—For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic letters; for books printed in Latin types use the same for lettering.
3.—All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in caps. only.
4.—Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.
5.—Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's name.
6.—Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name.
Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94—Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94—Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should be observed:—
1.—The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by larger type or spacing.
1.—The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by larger type or spacing.
Fig. 95—Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.Fig. 95—Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.
Figs. 96 and 97—Two richly decorated insides done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Figs. 96 and 97—Two richly decorated insides done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
2.—The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.) is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title be; such words must be set in smaller type.
3.—Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short alternating as much as possible.
4.—The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal catch-word.
Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101—Four richly tooled backs.Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101—Four richly tooled backs.
5.—The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then decreases.
6.—Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title tells what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a little distance.
Fig. 102—Rich half-calf extra binding.Fig. 102—Rich half-calf extra binding.
It is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured. The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed at half the distance between the lines.
If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile, latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir, &c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes. In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never being so cramped into little space.
The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed, especially the title.
Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces, which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.
For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp. 149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).
Figs. 103 and 104—Tooling on heads.Figs. 103 and 104—Tooling on heads.
The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this work, being worked onthe cap as seen in the illustrations, and always directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the gold taken up by the book itself.
The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of edges.
Figs. 105, 106, and 107—Tooling on the edges of the boards.Figs. 105, 106, and 107—Tooling on the edges of the boards.
Fig. 108—Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical School.Fig. 108—Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement is drawn along the straight edge.The line is drawn away from the worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the edge the more effective the line.
Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury. For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains uncovered.
Fig. 109—Case to protect book.
Fig. 109—Case to protect book.Fig. 110—Cut-out case.
The partsAoverlap and are either pasted together or wired with the machine.
Fig. 110—Cut-out case.
Fig. 111—Book cover.Fig. 112—Cover in case form.
Similar cases of thinner boards—but covered—are made for hymn and prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper; and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining illustration (Fig. 110).
Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; thiswould be cut from stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case covering (See Fig. 111).
Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth, which extends over the partsBandC, all the rest being covered with dark pressed paper.
Account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to deal fully with which would require a volume in itself.
To-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. Upon this principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a patent, has become a somewhat expensive style.
It is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover works loose.
For account books, only the best and strongest paper—ruled or printed—is used, always according to sample. Of course, the work of ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book.
The paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets, according to the thickness and quality of the paper. For heavy books a strip of jaconet is folded in the middleof the inner sheet of each section before sewing, and, in any case, this should be done with every first and last three sheets. The end paper makes a section in itself, which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing—it has previously been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet. In the end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted.
Figs. 113 and 114—End papers for account books.Figs. 113 and 114—End papers for account books.
The following is a practical way of making the end paper:—
1.—Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour, and fold in the middle.2.—One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.3.—The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is sewn, or3a.—A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold the second section is sewn.
1.—Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour, and fold in the middle.
2.—One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.
3.—The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is sewn, or
3a.—A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold the second section is sewn.
Better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine wire-stitched.
In hand sewing, double bands—a wide, strong linen tape—are used, end to end, of course, and with strong thread.
The bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame; for folio, at least six are used, and for quarto not less than four.
It has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout, and, further, that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them through the linen joint—in high class work with coloured cordonnet silk. All sheets, without exception, are kettle-stitched at the end. Large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back, but only at head and tail, with perhaps a little in the middle; they are only completely glued up after having been rounded in the press, as this makes them retain their shape longer.
If it is decided to do any marbling, the fore-edge is marbled immediately after trimming it. Rounding is more pronounced in this than in ordinary work, otherwise the spring back would have no effect with such bulk, and the book would easily go out of shape.
The account book is also pressed, but not in the same way as printed books, as the former has its groove pressed quite out. After careful adjustment between boards, they are squared to the edge of the first and last sheet, the whole lifted into the press, and the back glued with very hot glue. The bands are generally left outside the boards, as they would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside. After the book has thoroughly dried in the press, it is cut at top and bottom, marbled, or some other suitable treatment given to the edges, and then pasted up. The "clothing up" of the account book is done either with soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the purpose; in the former case the bands are omitted, that is, only the parts between the bands are pasted. Inpasting up with mole-skin, only the back may be glued—never the covering material. The covering material has a loose overlap of 4 cm. at each side.
Account books take a stronger headband than other books; it must reach on to the board, which it binds to the book. For this purpose the board must first have been affixed.
In the first place, a thin but very strong board is laid—about 1-1/2 mm. from the joint—upon the first sheet, which has been completely coated with glue; the bands are pasted out upon this board, as also are the leather or beaver clothing overlaps.
It is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy book, therefore a second heavier board—or, if necessary, even a third—is pasted to it; but as the back now goes over on to the board, the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from pushing into the back when opening the book.
As the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick, and such thick boards not being easily cut, they are generally cut the required size beforehand. Before pasting the thicker board upon the first board, the back is prepared.
Fig. 115—Boards cut out at head.Fig. 115—Boards cut out at head.
First of all, the headband. It is carried on to each board 3 cm. deep, and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the edge; atAthe board is bevelled off on the inside. Now cut a piece of coloured chamois leather—dark red or green—5 cm. wide and as long as the distance from one notch across the back to the other. The back atBisnow glued, the strip of leather laid on so that it projects 1-1/2 cm. beyond the edge, and the ends at each side brought equally to the bevelled partA. At both sides these are pushed in under the thin board and well pasted down, whilst the piece projecting over the edge is glued and turned backwards; but in order to strengthen the piece on the back of the book, a piece of card as long as the width of the back is laid in.
The back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of suitable length and width, or is made on the machine. The practice of pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory, because on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring, and on the other the single sections easily work loose. For pasted backs, stout wrappers are taken, and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in width the one preceding. The glued and fitted strips are either pressed hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the same purpose. The finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short time. Where there is no machine suitable for this work, the backs must be pasted into each other, beginning at the outside, and well rubbed down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions. The older method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed, although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as the former method. When it must be done, the following is the way to proceed: The size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back (taking in 1/2 cm. of the board on each side), and with the dividers this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper, which must be the exact length of the board, but wide enough to project about a hand's width over each board. So that this should not have an unsightly appearance in the book, it is bevelled along each side.
Fig. 116—Suggestion for account book back. K—Pared edge; T—Part to be pasted.Fig. 116—Suggestion for account book back. K—Pared edge; T—Part to be pasted.
According to the measurement marked by the dividers attop and bottom, a rule is laid fromatoa, and along this a sharp line is drawn with the folder, and the lappets projecting underneath the rule are bent upwards. At this line thus marked, the wrapper is folded over and creased with the folder. A second parallel line is made in the same way, about 6 to 7 mm. farther out, frombtob. The back thus prepared is rounded in the middle part; a strip the sizeatoamight still be pasted in the centre. To fasten this to the book, both strips are glued with strong glue frombto the edge, the back brought into position, glued, and pressed down. From this it will be seen that the back stretched across the book is not glued on fromatob. A few more pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back to increase the strength of the arch; each one is measured separately after the one preceding it has been glued into its place, always measuring fromatoa.
Fig. 117—Suggestion for account book back.Fig. 117—Suggestion for account book back.
Such backs do not adhere quite firmly, and it is advisable to insert another narrower glued strip, opening the book in the middle, of course, to do this. After inserting the back, the book is closed, and the back will now lie close and tightto the book. It is trimmed at top and bottom with a sharp knife and finished off with a rasp if necessary.
The heavy boards are hinged on to this back. They are cut to fit, and, beginning at the foldb, are placed so that the edge of the board stands a little away from the joint.
Fig. 118—Boarded account book.Fig. 118—Boarded account book.
Where it is possible to glue up hot, the back should be made in advance. It is, however, essential that the spring back should be slightly over-rounded, that is to say, that its ends should first be pressed out so that they can be pushed on to the back; only thus can it be really effective, and must, moreover, be shaped to three-quarters of a circle.
An apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat, solely by wrapping up in drilling, is little better than a toy, which saves neither time nor material. The inventor can hardly be in the trade—certainly not a practical worker.
The prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows: Cut a strip of stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and 3 to 4 cm. at each side; glue the inside of the rounded back evenly, and then fasten in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides. At head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside, and the back thus made is forced on the book. Before doing so, a line should be drawn on the thin boards about 1-1/2 to 2 cm. from the joint, glue up to this line; the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then pressed down. To make these backs lie closer, a strip of packing may similarly be inserted.
So then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old style with the packed spring backs; here the back is just hinged on cloth, there it is made from a piece of wrapper. The thick board is set on in the same way as in the other style of work, set off from the glued back about 1 to 1-1/2 cm. To fill up this space, lay in each groove a piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted, rubbing in the paste quite smooth, and, after drying, paste over with stout paper.
Very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many superimposed boards; this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the upper thick board.
To protect the book, leather bands are pasted on the back, also something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail, which is then covered with specially strong leather. For covering, linen, mole-skin; for heavy and extra work, pig-skin and cow-hide are used. Leather is, of course, always pared down, thoroughly coated with paste, well stretched over, and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints, bands, &c.—side panels are also let in—and turned in. Where the back disappears under the thick board, the turn-in is cut in almost up to the edge atbwith sharp scissors; if it were cut right to the edge it would be visible, which must be avoided. For turning-in at the head, it is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration.