Pizzicato.

Note.In this group may be classed the guitar, zither, balalaïka; instruments plucked with a quill, such as the domra,[9]the mandoline etc., all of which may be used in an orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present book.

Although capable of every degree of power fromfftopp,pizzicatoplaying has but small range of expression, and is used chiefly as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy, on stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is rather dry and hard.

Table Donpage 31indicates the range in whichpizzicatomay be used on each stringed instrument.

In the orchestra,pizzicatocomes into operation in two distinct ways: a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The fingers of the right hand playingpizz.are far less agile than the bow;pizz.passages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those playedarco. Moreover, the speed ofpizzicatoplaying depends upon the thickness of the strings; on the double basses, for instance, it must always be much slower than on the violins.

Inpizzicatochords it is better to avoid open strings, which produce a more brilliant tone than of covered strings. Chords of four notes allow of greater freedom and vigour of attack, as there is no danger of accidentally touching a wrong note. Natural harmonics playedpizz.create a charming effect; the tone is weak however, and they are chiefly successful on the violoncello.

In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only one harp part, but in recent times composers have written for two or even three harps, which are sometimes compressed into the one part.

Note.Full orchestras should include three or even four harps. My operasSadko,The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh, andThe Golden Cockerelare designed for two harps,Mladafor three.

The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords, and the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes at the most can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord should be written close together, with not too great a space between one hand and the other. The chords must always be broken (arpeggiato); should the composer wish otherwise he should notify it (non arpeggiato). In the middle and lower octaves the resonance of the strings is slightly prolonged, and dies away gradually. In changes of harmony the player stops the vibration of the strings with his hands, but, in quick modulations, this method is not feasible, and the mixture of one chord with another produces a discordant effect. It follows that more or less rapid figures can only be realised clearly and neatly in the upper register of the harp, where the strings are shorter and harder in tone.

As a general rule, in the whole range of the harp:

C1♭-F7♯

only the notes of the first to the fourth octave are used; the extreme notes in both compasses may be employed in special circumstances, and for doubling in octaves.

The harp is essentially a diatonic instrument, since all chromatic passages depend on the manipulation of the pedals. For this reason the harp does not lend itself to rapid modulation, and the orchestrator is advised to bear this fact in mind. But the difficulty may be obviated by using two harps alternately.[10]

Note.I would remind the reader that the harp is not capable of double sharps or double flats. For this reason, certain modulations from one key to another one, adjacent to it can only be accomplished enharmonically. For instance, the transition fromCflat,Gflat orDflat, major to their minor subdominant chords or keys is not possible owing to double flats. It is thereforenecessary to start enharmonically from the keys ofB,Fsharp orCsharp, major. Similarly, on account of double sharps, it is impossible to change fromAsharp,Dsharp orGsharp, minor to their respective dominant major chords or keys;Bflat,Eflat andAflat, minor must be the starting-points.

The technical operation known asglissandois peculiar to the harp alone. Taking for granted that the reader is conversant with the methods of acquiring different scales by means of double-notched pedals, it will be sufficient to remark thatglissandoscales produce a discordant medley of sound owing to the length of time the strings continue to vibrate, and therefore, as apurely musicaleffect,glissandocan only be used in the upper octaves, quitepiano, where the sound of the strings is sufficiently clear, yet not too prolonged.Forte glissandoscales, entailing the use of the lower and middle strings are only permissible as embellishments. Glissando passages in chords of the seventh and ninth, enharmonically obtained, are much more common, and as the above reservations do not apply, every dynamic shade of tone is possible. Chords in harmonics can only consist of three notes written close together, two for the left hand and one for the right.

The tender poetic quality of the harp is adapted to every dynamic shade, but it is never a very powerful instrument, and the orchestrator should treat it with respect.

At least three, if not four harps in unison are necessary, if they are to be heard against a full orchestra playingforte. The more rapidly aglissandopassage is played, the louder it will sound. Harmonic notes on the harp have great charm but little resonance, and are only possible played quite softly. Speaking generally, the harp, like the string quartet,pizzicato, is more an instrument of colour than expression.

Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra occupy the most important place in the group of percussion instruments. A pair of kettle-drums (Timpani), in the tonic and dominant keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, andincluding Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19thcentury onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums, during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive chromatic drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still, in the majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally to be found. The composer can therefore take it for granted that a good timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will be able to tune at least one of them during a pause of some length.

The limits of possible change in Beethoven's time was considered to be:

In these days it is difficult to define the precise extent of high compass in the kettle-drums, as this depends entirely on the size and quality of the smallest one, of which there are many kinds, but I advise the composer to select:

E2-G♯3 (chromatically)

Note.A magnificent kettle-drum of very small size was made for my opera-balletMlada; this instrument gave theD♭of the fourth octave.

Kettle-drums are capable of every dynamic shade of tone, from thunderingfortissimoto a barely perceptiblepianissimo. Intremolandothey can execute the most gradualcrescendo,diminuendo, thesfpandmorendo.

To deaden the sound, a piece of cloth is generally placed on the skin of the drum, according to the instruction:timpani coperti(muffled drums).

Table D.Pizzicato.Table D[Enlarge]The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only be used when doubled with the wood-wind.* Table E.Glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone.Table E[Enlarge]

Table D

[Enlarge]

The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only be used when doubled with the wood-wind.

Table E

[Enlarge]

The use of a piano in the orchestra (apart from pianoforte concertos) belongs almost entirely to the Russian school.[11]The object is two-fold: the quality of tone, either alone, or combined withthat of the harp, is made to imitate a popular instrument, the guzli, (as in Glinka), or a soft peal of bells. When the piano forms part of an orchestra, not as a solo instrument, an upright is preferable to a grand, but today the piano is gradually being superseded by the celesta, first used by Tschaikovsky. In the celesta, small steel plates take the place of strings, and the hammers falling on them produce a delightful sound, very similar to theglockenspiel. The celesta is only found in full orchestras; when it is not available it should be replaced by an upright piano, and not theglockenspiel.

Theglockenspiel(campanelli) may be made of steel bars, or played with a keyboard. The first type is the more satisfactory and possesses greater resonance. The use of theglockenspielis similar to the celesta, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating. Big bells in the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes,[12]or real church bells of moderate size may be considered more as theatrical properties than orchestral instruments.

The xylophone is a species of harmonica composed of strips or cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers. It produces a clattering sound, both powerful and piercing.

To complete this catalogue of sounds mention should be made of the strings playingcol legno, that is with the wood or back of the bow. The sound produced is similar to the xylophone, and gains in quality as the number of players is increased.

Atableis appended showing the range of the celesta,glockenspieland xylophone.

Instruments in this group, such as triangle, castanets, little bells, tambourine, switch or rod (Rute.Ger.), side or military drum, cymbals, bass drum, and Chinese gong do not take any harmonic or melodic part in the orchestra, and can only be considered as ornamental instruments pure and simple. They have no intrinsicmusical meaning, and are just mentioned by the way. The first three may be considered ashigh, the four following asmedium, and the lasttwoas deep instruments. This may serve as a guide to their use with percussion instruments of determinate sounds, playing in corresponding registers.

In comparing the resonance of the respective groups of sound-sustaining instruments we arrive at the following approximate conclusions:

In the most resonant group, the brass, the strongest instruments are the trumpets, trombones and tuba. In loud passages the horns are only one-half as strong, 1 Trumpet = 1 Trombone = 1 Tuba = 2 Horns. Wood-wind instruments, infortepassages, are twice as weak as the horns, 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes = 2 Bassoons; but, inpianopassages, all wind-instruments, wood or brass are of fairly equal balance.

It is more difficult to establish a comparison in resonance between wood-wind and strings, as everything depends on the number of the latter, but, in an orchestra of medium formation, it may be taken for granted that inpianopassages, the whole of one department (all1stViolins orall2ndViolins etc.) is equivalent in strength to one wind instrument, (Violins I = 1 Flute etc.), and, infortepassages, to two wind instruments, (Violins I = 2 Flutes = 1 Oboe+1 Clarinet, etc.).

It is still harder to form a comparison with instruments of little sustaining power, for too great a diversity in production and emission of sound exists. The combined force of groups of sustained resonance easily overpowers the strings playedpizz.orcol legno, the piano played softly, or the celesta. As regards theglockenspiel, bells, and xylophone, their emphatic tone will easily prevail over other groups in combination. The same may be said of the kettle-drums with their ringing, resounding quality, and also of other subsidiary instruments.

The influence of the timbre of one group on another is noticeable when the groups are doubled; for instance, when the wood-wind timbre is closely allied to the strings on the one hand, and to the brass on the other. Re-inforcing both, the windthickensthe stringsandsoftensthe brass. The strings do not blend so well with the brass, and when the two groups are placed side by side, each is heard too distinctly. The combination of the three different timbres in unison produces a rich, mellow and coherent tone.

All, or several wind instruments in combination will absorb one department of added strings:

One department of strings added to the wood-wind in unison produces a sweet coherent quality, the wood-wind timbre still predominating; but the addition of one wind instrument to all or part of the strings in unison, only thickens the resonance of the latter, the wood-wind timbre being lost in the process:

Muted strings do not combine so well with wood-wind, as the two tone qualities remain distinct and separate. Uniting plucked strings and percussion with instruments of sustained resonance results in the following: wind instruments, wood and brass, strengthen and clarifypizzicatostrings, harp, kettle-drums and percussion generally, the latter lending a touch of relief to the tone of the wood-wind. Uniting plucked strings and percussion with bowed instruments does not produce such a satisfactory blend, both qualities being heard independently. The combination of plucked strings with percussion alone, is excellent; the two blend perfectly, and the consequent increase in resonance yields an admirable effect.

The relationship which exists between string harmonics and the flute or piccolo constitutes a link between the two groups in the upper range of the orchestra. Moreover, the timbre of the viola may be vaguely compared to the middle register of the bassoon and the lowest compass of the clarinet; hence, in the medium orchestral range, a point of contact is established between the quartet of strings and the wood-wind.

The bassoon and horn provide the connection between wood-wind and brass, these two instruments being somewhat analogousin character when playedpianoormezzo-forte; the flute also, in its lowest register, recalls thepianissimotrumpet tone. Stopped and muted notes in horns and trumpets are similar in quality to the oboe and Eng. horn, and blend tolerably well with the latter instrument.

Concluding this survey of orchestral groups I add a few remarks which seem to me of special importance.

The principal part in music is undertaken by three instrumental groups of sustained resonance, representing the three primary elements, melody, harmony and rhythm. Instruments of little sustaining power, though sometimes used independently, are chiefly employed for ornament and colour; instruments producing indeterminate sounds play no melodic or harmonic part, their functions being purely rhythmical.

By glancing at the order in which the six orchestral groups are placed, strings, wood-wind, brass, plucked strings, percussion producing definite, and those producing indefinite sounds, the reader will be able to determine the part played by each in the art of orchestration, from the secondary standpoint of colour and expression. As regards expression, the strings come first, and the expressive capacity of the other groups diminishes in the above order, colour being the only attribute of the last group of percussion instruments.

The same order obtains from the standpoint of general effect in orchestration. We can listen to strings for an almost indefinite period of time without getting tired, so varied are their characteristics (videthe number of string quartets, suites, serenades etc. written for strings alone). The addition of a single group of strings will add lustre to a passage for wind instruments. On the other hand, the quality of wind instruments soon becomes wearisome; the same may be said of plucked strings, and also percussion of every kind which should only be employed at reasonable intervals in orchestral composition.

It cannot be denied that the constant use of compound timbres, in pair's, in three's etc. eliminates characteristics of tone, and produces a dull, neutral texture, whereas the employment of simple, elementary combinations gives infinitely greater scope for variety in colour.

7 (20) June 1908.

MELODY.

Whether it be long or short, a simple theme or a melodic phrase, melody should always stand out in relief from the accompaniment. This may be done by artificial or natural means; artificially, when the question of tone quality does not come into consideration, and the melody is detached by means of strongly accentuated dynamic shades; naturally, by selection and contrast of timbres, strengthening of resonance by doubling, tripling, etc., or crossing of parts (violoncellos above the violas and violins, clarinets or oboes above the flutes, bassoons above the clarinets etc.).

Melody planned in the upper parts stands out from the very fact of position alone, and likewise, to a less degree when it is situated in the low register. In the middle of the orchestral range it is not so prominent and the methods referred to above come into operation. They may also be employed for two part melody (in thirds and sixths) and for polyphonic writing.

Instances of the melodic use of stringed instruments are innumerable. The reader will find many examples in the present treatise. With the exception of the double basses,—dull in tone and of little flexibility, chiefly employed in unison or in octaves with the violoncellos,—each of the other stringed instruments, taken independently, is qualified to assume full responsibility for the melodic line.

Melody in the soprano-alto register and an extra-high compass usually falls to the lot of the 1stViolins, sometimes to the 2ndViolins or to both in unison, a process which produces fuller resonance without impairing quality of tone.

Examples:

The Tsar's Bride84.[C]—Pianissimomelody (VnsI) of atroubled dramatic character. Harmonic accompaniment (VnsII and Violastremolando—middle parts; the Violoncellos forming the bass).

Antar, before70.—Descending melodic phrase, VnsIcon sordini piano.

No. 1.Shéhérazade2ndmovementB. Apianomelody (VnsI) graceful in character.

Antar12. Light graceful melody, oriental in style; a dance measure (VnsIcon sord.), the mutes producing a dull ethereal quality of tone.

No. 2.The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh283.

No. 3.Spanish CapriccioJ. VnsI in the upper register doubling the high register of the wood-wind. Choice resonance.

Melody in the alto-tenor register and a still higher compass is assigned to the violas.Cantabilemelodies however are not so frequently written for violas as for violins and 'cellos, partly because the viola tone is slightly nasal in quality and better fitted for short characteristic phrases, partly because the number of viola players in an orchestra is smaller. Melodies confided to the violas are generally doubled by other strings or by the wood-wind.

Examples:

No. 4.Pan Voyevoda, duet in Act II145. A longcantabilemelody in the violas,dolce, in unison with themezzo sopranovoice.

No. 5.The Golden Cockerel193.—Flowingcantabile.

No. 6.Sadko.Symphonic tableau12.—Muted violas. A short dance theme,pianoinD♭major. (The same theme in Eng. hornin the 6thscene of the operaSadkois slightly more penetrating in tone).

Violoncellos, representing the tenor-bass range+an extra-high compass are more often entrusted with tense passionatecantabilemelody than with distinctive figures or rapid phrases. Such melodies are usually laid out for the top string (A) which possesses a wonderfully rich "chest" quality.

Examples:

Antar56.Cantabileon theAstring.

Antar63. The same melody inD♭maj. on theDstring (doubled by the bassoons).

No. 7.Pan Voyevoda134, nocturne, "Moonlight". A broad melodydolce ed espressivo, afterwards doubled by the first violins an octave higher.

No. 8.Snegourotchka231. At the fifth bar, a melody on theAstringcantabile ed espressivo, imitating the first clarinet.

No. 9.Snegourotchka274. Melodic phrase with embellishments.

Owing to its register—basso profondo+a still lower compass,—and its muffled resonance, the double bass is little capable of broadcantabilephrases and only in unison or in octaves with the 'cellos. In my own compositions there is no phrase of any importance given to the double bass without the support of 'cellos or bassoons.

Examples:

*No. 10.Legend of Kitesh306. Double bass solo, doubled first by the double bassoon, later by the bassoon. This example affords an instance of the rare use of the alto clef (in the last few notes).

*No. 11.The Golden Cockerel120.—D. basses+D. bassoons.

a) VnsI+VnsII.—It goes without saying that this combination entails no alteration in colour; it gains in power and richness of tone by reason of the increased number of players, and is usually attended by doubling of the melody in some departments of the wood-wind. The large number of violins prevents the wood-wind predominating, and the tone quality remains that of the string quartet, enriched and amplified.

Examples:

No. 12.Shéhérazade, beginning of the third movement.Cantabilefor VnsI and II on theDstring, then on theA.

The May Night, overtureD. Quickpianomelody, beginningcantabileand divided later in octaves

with florid embellishment.

No. 13.The Golden Cockerel170.—VnsI+II muted.

b) Violins+Violas.—The combination of violins and violas presents no special characteristics, as in the preceding case. The violins remain predominant, and the resonance is rich and full.

Examples:

No. 14.Sadko208.—VnsI+II+Violas (Gstring). Quietcantabilemelodypp, in unison with the altos and tenors of the chorus.

TheGolden Cockerel142.—Same combination.

c) Violas+'Cellos.—Produces a rich full resonance, the 'cello quality predominating.

Examples:

No. 15.Snegourotchka5.—Apparition of Spring. Violas+'Cellos+Eng. horn. The same melody,mezzo-forte cantabileas inEx. 9; but in a brighter key, a third higher, its resonance is more brilliant and tense. The addition of the Eng. horn makes no essential difference to the compound tone; the 'cellos stand out above the rest.

No. 16.The Golden Cockerel71. Violas+'Cellos muted.

d) Violins+'Cellos.—A combination similar to the preceding one. The 'cello tone prevails and the resonance is fuller.

Examples:

No. 17.Snegourotchka288. "Spring descends upon the lake". VnsI+VnsII+'Cellos+Eng. horn. The samecantabileas inEx. 9, and15. The Eng. horn is absorbed in the musical texture, the principal colour being that of the 'cellos. Still more powerful in resonance.

No. 18.The May Night.Act IIIL. Chorus ofRoussâlki. The combination of the solo 'cello with the violins gives the latter a touch of the 'cello timbre.

e) VnsI+II+Violas+'Cellos.—Combining violins, violas and 'cellos in unison is not possible except in the alto-tenor register; this process unites the full resonance of the instruments into anensembleof complex quality, very tense and powerful infortepassages, extremely full and rich inpiano.

Examples:

No. 19.Shéhérazade, 2ndmovementP.—Energetic phraseff.

Mlada, Lithuanian dance, before36.

Mlada, Act III.40.—Cleopatra's dance.Cantabileembellished in oriental fashion.

f) Violoncellos+D. basses.—A combination of rich full resonance, used occasionally for phrases in the very low register.

Examples:

No. 20.Sadko260.—A persistentfortefigure, severe in character.

No. 21.Legend of Kitesh240.—Apianissimophrase, sinister and horrible in character.

a) VnsI and VnsII in octaves.

This is a very common process used for all kinds of melodic figures, in particular those in the very high register. It has already been stated that theEstring diminishes in fulness of tonethe higher it ascends from the limits of the soprano voice. Moreover, melodic figures in the very high register of the violins become too isolated from the rest of theensembleunless doubled in octaves. Such doubling secures expression, fulness of tone and firmness of timbre. The reader will find numerous examples of violins in octaves; a few are added below, chiefly broad and expressive phrases.

Examples:

No. 22.The Tsar's Bride166.Cantabile, piano.

The Tsar's Bride206.Cantabile, mezzo-piano; the lower part is in unison with the soprano voice.

Shéhérazade, 3rdmovementJ.CantabileinGmajor;dolceandcantabile(the same asEx. 12).

No. 23.The Legend of Tsar Saltan227. Melody with reiterated notes,dolce, espress. e cantabile.

Sadko, Symphonic tableau12.

muted. A short dance phrasepianissimo, given first to the violas, then to the violins (cf.Ex. 6).

No. 24.Sadko, opera207. Perhaps an unique example of its kind; violins playing in the very extremity of the high register.

Note.This passage is difficult but nevertheless quite playable. One or two desks of the 1stViolins are sufficient to double the melody in the upper octave, all the other 1stViolins can play the octave below. In this way the piercing quality of the highest notes will be diminished, the melody will acquire a clearer and more pleasant sound, and the expressive tone quality of the lower octave will be strengthened.

*The Golden Cockerel156.

*"""165.

*Antar, 1stmovement11.

*No. 25.Ivan the Terrible, Act III63.

b) Violinsdivisiin octaves.

First and second violins divided in two parts and progressing in octaves will deprive the melody of resonance, since the number of players is diminished by half, the consequences being specially noticeable in small orchestras. Nevertheless the method can be used occasionally when the strings are doubled by the wood-wind, and when the melody falls in a sufficiently high register.

Examples:

Snegourotchka166.—

mezzo-forte espressivo. Partial doubling of Coupava's song (Sopr.). One flute and one oboe double the melody.

No. 26.Snegourotchka283.—Chorus of Flowers—

Pianissimo cantabilein two octaves, progressing with the women's chorus (Sopr. I), and given out earlier by the Eng. horn. The flute and all the 1stViolins except two play in the lower octave, the two solo violins, only, in the upper. The solo desk will be sufficiently prominent owing to the generalpianissimo.

c) Violins and Violas in octaves.

First and second Violins progressing with the Violas in octaves is a common method, especially when the lower octave in the melody happens to go below the openGstring on the violins.

Example:

Snegourotchka137, finale of Act I. Quick melody,piano.

These two distributions are not exactly the same. The first should be used to obtain greater brilliance in the upper part, the second to give the lower part a fuller and morecantabilequality.

Examples:

No. 27.Sadko, before181.—

Quick animated passage,forte, introducing reiterated notes.

No. 28.Snegourotchka137, finale to Act I—

Cantabilephrase, transmitted to the flute and clarinet (cf.Ex. 8).

d) Violas and Violoncellos in octaves.

Of special use when the Violins are otherwise employed.

Example:

*Legend of Kitesh59,

doubled by bassoons.

e) Violins and Violoncellos in octaves.

Used in very expressive passages where the 'cellos have to play on theAorDstrings. This method produces a more resonant tone than the preceding one; instances of it are frequent.

Examples:

No. 29.Antar43.—

Cantabileof Eastern origin.

Shéhérazade, 3rdmovementH.—

Cantabile mezzo-forte appassionato(cf.Ex. 1).

*No. 30.Shéhérazade, 3rdmovement, beforeP—

The first arrangement is rarely found.

Pan Voyevoda134, nocturne "Moonlight"—

Cantabilemelody given first to 'cellos alone (cf.Ex. 7).

The May Night, Act IIIB, C, D—

Afortemelodic phrase.

f) Violoncellos and Double basses in octaves.

The bass is usually constructed in this manner. Examples of it are to be found everywhere. Sometimes the double bass part is simplified in comparison with the 'cello part.

Example:

Snegourotchka9, Fairy Spring'sAria.

g) Violas and Double basses in octaves.

This combination seldom arises and is only used when the 'cellos are otherwise employed.

Example:

No. 31.Legend of Kitesh223.

h) Parts progressing in octaves, each part doubled in unison. Melodies situated in the middle orchestral range may be allotted to 1stand 2ndVns, in octaves with Violas and 'Cellos. This arrangement is constantly found, and produces a beautiful quality of tone, somewhat severe in character.

Examples:

Snegourotchka58,60,65and68. The same melody, played twicepianissimo, not doubled, then twice (mezzo-forteandforte), doubled in the wood-wind.

Mlada, Act II, the beginning of the Lithuanian dance. A livelypianotheme.

Ivan the Terrible, Act II28.

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