The Project Gutenberg eBook ofPrinciples of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own WorksThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Principles of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own WorksAuthor: Nikolay Rimsky-KorsakovEditor: Maksimilian ShteinbergTranslator: Edward AgateRelease date: September 29, 2010 [eBook #33900]Most recently updated: July 31, 2021Language: EnglishCredits: Mark C. Orton, Linda Cantoni, Alex Guzman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF ORCHESTRATION, WITH MUSICAL EXAMPLES DRAWN FROM HIS OWN WORKS ***
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Principles of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own WorksAuthor: Nikolay Rimsky-KorsakovEditor: Maksimilian ShteinbergTranslator: Edward AgateRelease date: September 29, 2010 [eBook #33900]Most recently updated: July 31, 2021Language: EnglishCredits: Mark C. Orton, Linda Cantoni, Alex Guzman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
Title: Principles of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own Works
Author: Nikolay Rimsky-KorsakovEditor: Maksimilian ShteinbergTranslator: Edward Agate
Author: Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov
Editor: Maksimilian Shteinberg
Translator: Edward Agate
Release date: September 29, 2010 [eBook #33900]Most recently updated: July 31, 2021
Language: English
Credits: Mark C. Orton, Linda Cantoni, Alex Guzman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF ORCHESTRATION, WITH MUSICAL EXAMPLES DRAWN FROM HIS OWN WORKS ***
Transcriber’s NotesAbout this eBook:This eBook was prepared from a 1964 reprint published by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, which in turn was prepared from the two-volume 1922 English translation published byÉdition Russe de Musique, Paris.Volume Icontains the text of the work;Volume IIcontains the musical examples referred to in Volume I. In this eBook, each volume is in a separate HTML document. References in Volume I to the numbered musical examples are hyperlinked to Volume II. Seethis footnotefor the editor's explanation of the musical examples and the boxed rehearsal numbers. The use of asterisks is explained onpage XIIof theEditor's Preface.Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note. Other apparent errors are underlined in red with a popupTranscriber's Note.About the music:Midi or MP3 files have been provided for all music examples (except for single-note examples, and tables of instrument ranges and chords). Click on the [Listen] link to hear the music. For the extended music examples inVolume II, you can also click on the [PDF] link to view an enlarged version of the original music images; and on the [XML] link to view or download the notation in MusicXML.All MP3 files were created by the Transcriber using Finale with Garritan Personal Orchestra, which employs sound samples of actual musical instruments, except for vocal solos. The MusicXML files were created automatically in Finale and have not been edited further. They reflect primarily the sound of the music, not its appearance. Some workarounds were employed to address minor limitations and bugs in Finale and Garritan that affected the sound (e.g., empty measures at the beginning and/or end of a piece to avoid abrupt cut-offs; changes in dynamics; expansion of shared staves where instruments are doubled; instrument substitutions; etc.). Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note; other questionable items are noted in the MusicXML file.For each music example inVolume II, a link has been provided back to the page inVolume Ion which the example is referenced. Page numbers have been omitted fromVolume II, but are available in the PDF files.
Transcriber’s Notes
About this eBook:This eBook was prepared from a 1964 reprint published by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, which in turn was prepared from the two-volume 1922 English translation published byÉdition Russe de Musique, Paris.
Volume Icontains the text of the work;Volume IIcontains the musical examples referred to in Volume I. In this eBook, each volume is in a separate HTML document. References in Volume I to the numbered musical examples are hyperlinked to Volume II. Seethis footnotefor the editor's explanation of the musical examples and the boxed rehearsal numbers. The use of asterisks is explained onpage XIIof theEditor's Preface.
Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note. Other apparent errors are underlined in red with a popupTranscriber's Note.
About the music:Midi or MP3 files have been provided for all music examples (except for single-note examples, and tables of instrument ranges and chords). Click on the [Listen] link to hear the music. For the extended music examples inVolume II, you can also click on the [PDF] link to view an enlarged version of the original music images; and on the [XML] link to view or download the notation in MusicXML.
All MP3 files were created by the Transcriber using Finale with Garritan Personal Orchestra, which employs sound samples of actual musical instruments, except for vocal solos. The MusicXML files were created automatically in Finale and have not been edited further. They reflect primarily the sound of the music, not its appearance. Some workarounds were employed to address minor limitations and bugs in Finale and Garritan that affected the sound (e.g., empty measures at the beginning and/or end of a piece to avoid abrupt cut-offs; changes in dynamics; expansion of shared staves where instruments are doubled; instrument substitutions; etc.). Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note; other questionable items are noted in the MusicXML file.
For each music example inVolume II, a link has been provided back to the page inVolume Ion which the example is referenced. Page numbers have been omitted fromVolume II, but are available in the PDF files.
NIKOLAY RIMSKY-KORSAKOVPrinciplesof Orchestrationwith musical examplesdrawn from his own worksEdited byMAXIMILIAN STEINBERGEnglish translation byEDWARD AGATE[VOLUMES I and II][Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922]
[Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922]
List of Works
NIKOLAY RIMSKY-KORSAKOVPrinciplesof Orchestrationwith musical examplesdrawn from his own worksEdited byMAXIMILIAN STEINBERGEnglish translation byEDWARD AGATE[VOLUME I][Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922]
[Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922]
CONTENTSVOLUME II
Rimsky-Korsakov had long been engrossed in his treatise on orchestration. We have in our possession a thick note book of some 200 pages in fine hand writing, dating from the years 1873-1874, containing a monograph on the question of acoustics, a classification of wind instruments and a detailed description of the construction and fingering of the different kinds of flute, the oboe, clarinet and horn.[1]
In his "Memoirs of my musical life" (1stedition, p. 120) the following passage occurs: "I had planned to devote all my energies to the compilation of a full treatise on orchestration. To this end I made several rough copies, jotting down explanatory notes detailing the technique of different instruments. What I intended to present to the world on this subject, was to includeeverything. The writing of this treatise, or, to be more exact, the sketch for it took up most of my time in the years 1873 and 1874. After reading the works of Tyndall and Helmholtz, I framed an introduction to my work, in which I endeavoured to expound the laws of acoustics as applied to the principles governing the construction of musical instruments. My manual was to begin with a detailed list of instruments, classified in groups and tabulated, including a description of the various systems in use at the present day. I had not yet thought of the second part of the book which was to be devoted to instruments in combination. But I soon realised that I had gone too far. With wind instruments in particular, the different systems were innumerable, and each manufacturer favoured his own pet theory. By the addition of a certain key the maker endowed his instrument with the possibility of a new trill, andmade some difficult passages more playable than on an instrument of another kind.
"There was no end to such complications. In the brass, I found instruments with three, four, and five valves, the mechanism varying according to the make. Obviously, I could not hope to cover so large a field; besides, of what value would such a treatise be to the student? Such a mass of detailed description of the various systems, their advantages and drawbacks, could not but fail to confuse the reader only too eager to learn. Naturally he would wish to know what instrument to employ, the extent of its capabilities etc., and getting no satisfactory information he would throw my massive work aside. For these reasons my interest in the book gradually waned, and finally I gave up the task."
In 1891 Rimsky-Korsakov, now an artist of standing, the composer ofSnegourotchka,Mlada, andShéhérazade, a master of the orchestral technique he had been teaching for twenty years, returned to his handbook on instrumentation. He would seem to have made notes at different times from 1891 to 1893, during which period, after the first performance ofMlada, he gave up composition for a while. These notes, occasionally referred to in hisMemoirs, are in three volumes of manuscript-paper. They contain the unfinishedpreface of 1891, a paragraph full of clear, thoughtful writing, and reprinted in this book.[2]
As the author tells us in hisMemoirs(p. 297), the progress of his work was hampered by certain troublesome events which were happening at the time. Dissatisfied with his rough draft, he destroyed the greater part of it, and once more abandoned his task.
In 1894 he composedThe Christmas Night; this was the beginning of his most fertile period. He became entirely engrossed in composition, making plans for a fresh opera as soon as the one in hand was completed. It was not until 1905 that his thoughts returned to the treatise on orchestration, his musical output remaining in abeyance through no fault of his own. Since 1891 the plan of the work had been entirely remodelled, as proved by the rough drafts still extant. The author had given up the idea of describing different instruments from their technicalstandpoint, and was more anxious to dwell upon the value of tone qualities and their various combinations.
Among the author's papers several forms of the book have been found, each widely differing in detail from the other. At last, in the summer of 1905 Rimsky-Korsakov brought his plans to a head, and outlined the six chapters which form the foundation of the present volume. But the work suffered a further interruption, and the sketches were once more laid aside. In hisMemoirs, Rimsky-Korsakov explains the fact by lack of interest in the work and a general feeling of weariness: "The treatise remained in abeyance. To start with, the form of the book was not a success, and I awaited the production ofKitesh, in order to give some examples from that work" (p. 360).
Then came the autumn of 1906. The composer experienced another rush of creative energy; his opera,The Golden Cockerelmade rapid strides, and kept him busy all that winter and the following summer. When it was finished, in the autumn of 1907, his thoughts reverted to the treatise on orchestration. But the work made little progress. The author had his doubts as to the adequacy of the plan he had adopted, and, in spite of the entreaties of his pupils and friends, he could not bring himself to broach the latter part of the book. Towards the end of 1907 Rimsky-Korsakov was constantly ailing in health, and this materially affected his energy. He spent the greater part of his time reading old notes and classifying examples. About the 20thof May he set out for his summer residence in Lioubensk, and having just recovered from a third severe attack of inflammation of the lungs, began to work on thefirst chapterof the treatise in its present, final form. This chapter was finished on June 7/20, about 4 o'clock in the afternoon; the same night, the composer was seized with a fourth attack which proved fatal.
The honour fell on me to prepare this last work of Rimsky-Korsakov for publication. Now thatPrinciples of Orchestrationhas appeared in print I think it necessary to devote a few words to the essential features of the book, and to the labour imposed upon me in my capacity as editor.
On the first point I will say but little. The reader will observe from theContentsthat the work differs from others, not merely byreason of its musical examples, but more especially in the systematic arrangement of material, not according to orchestral division in groups (the method adopted by Gevaert for instance), but according toeach constituent of the musical whole, considered separately. The orchestration of melodic and harmonic elements (ChaptersIIandIII) receives special attention, as does the question of orchestration in general (Chapter IV). The last two chapters are devoted to operatic music, and thesixthtakes a supplementary form, having no direct bearing on the previous matter.
Rimsky-Korsakov altered the title of his book several times, and his final choice was never made. The title I have selected seems to me to be the one most suitable to the contents of the work, "principles" in the truest sense of the word. Some may expect to find the "secrets" of the great orchestrator disclosed; but, as he himself reminds us in hispreface, "to orchestrate is to create, and this is something which cannot be taught."
Yet, as invention, in all art, is closely allied to technique, this book may reveal much to the student of instrumentation. Rimsky-Korsakov has often repeated the axiom thatgood orchestration means proper handling of parts. The simple use of tone-colours and their combinations may also be taught, but there the science of instruction ends. From these standpoints the present book will furnish the pupil with nearly everything he requires. The author's death prevented him from discussing a few questions, amongst which I would include full polyphonic orchestration and the scoring of melodic and harmonic designs. But these questions can be partly solved by the principles laid down in ChaptersIIandIII, and I have no wish to overcrowd the first edition of this book with extra matter which can be added later, if it is found to be necessary. I had first of all to prepare and amplify the sketches made by Rimsky-Korsakov in 1905; these form a connected summary throughout the whole six chapters.Chapter Iwas completed by the author; it is published as it stands, save for a few unimportant alterations in style. As regards the other five chapters, I have tried to keep to the original drafts as far as possible, and have only made a few changes in the order, and one or two indispensable additions. The sketches made between 1891 and 1893 were too disconnected to be of much use, but, in pointof fact, they corresponded very closely to the final form of the work.
The musical examples are of greater importance. According to the original scheme, as noted on the 1891 MS., they were to be drawn from the works of Glinka and Tschaikovsky; those of Borodin and Glazounov were to be added later. The idea of choosing examples solely from his own works only came to Rimsky-Korsakov by degrees. The reasons for this decision are partly explained in the unfinishedpreface of 1905, but other motives may be mentioned. If Rimsky-Korsakov had chosen his examples from the works of these four composers, he would have had to give some account of their individual, and often strongly marked peculiarities of style. This would have been a difficult undertaking, and then, how to justify the exclusion of West-European composers, Richard Wagner, for example, whose orchestration Rimsky-Korsakov so greatly admired? Besides, the latter could hardly fail to realise that his own compositions afforded sufficient material to illustrate every conceivable manner of scoring, examplesemanating from one great general principle. This is not the place to criticise his method; Rimsky-Korsakov's "school" is here displayed, each may examine it for himself. The brilliant, highly-coloured orchestration of Russian composers, and the scoring of the younger French musicians are largely developments of the methods of Rimsky-Korsakov, who, in turn, looked upon Glinka as his spiritual father.
The table of examples found among the author's papers was far from complete; some portions were badly explained, others, not at all. The composer had not mentioned which musical quotations were to be printed in thesecond volume, and which examples were to indicate the study of the full score; further, no limit was fixed to the length of quotation. All this was therefore left to the editor's discretion. I selected the examples only after much doubt and hesitation, finding it difficult to keep to those stipulated by the composer, as every page of the master's works abounds in appropriate instances of this or that method of scoring.
I was guided by the following considerations which agreed with the opinions of the author himself: in the first place the examples should be as simple as possible, so as not to distractthe student's attention from the point under discussion; secondly, it was necessary that one example should serve to illustrate several sections of the book, and lastly, the majority of quotations should be those mentioned by the author. These amount to 214, in thesecond volume; the remaining 98 were added by me. They are drawn, as far as possible, from Rimsky-Korsakov's dramatic music, since operatic full-scores are less accessible than those of symphonic works.[3]
At the end ofVol. III have added threetablesshowing different ways of scoring full chords; all my additions to the text are marked with asterisks. I consider that the careful study of the examples contained in thesecond volumewill be of the greatest use to the studentwithout replacingthe need for the study of other composers' scores. Broadly speaking, the present work should be studied together with the reading of full scores in general.
A few words remain to be said regarding Rimsky-Korsakov's intention to point out the faulty passages in his orchestral works, an intention expressed in hispreface to the last edition. The composer often referred to the instructional value of such examinations. His purpose however was never achieved. It is not for me to select these examples, and I shall only mention two which were pointed out by the composer himself: 1.The Legend of Tsar Saltan220, 7thbar—the theme in the brass is not sufficiently prominent the trombones beingtacet(a mistake easily rectified); 2.The Golden Cockerel233, bars 10-14, if the marks of expression are observed in the brass, the counter-melody on the violas and violoncellos doubled by the wood-wind will hardly be heard.Example 75may also be mentioned, to which the note onpage 63, in the text, refers. I will confine myself to these examples.
In conclusion I desire to express my deep gratitude to Madame Rimsky-Korsakov for having entrusted me with the task of editing this work, thereby providing me with the opportunity of performing a duty sacred to the memory of a master, held so deeply in reverence.
St. Petersburgh, December 1912.
MAXIMILIAN STEINBERG.
Our epoch, the post-Wagnerian age, is the age of brilliance and imaginative quality in orchestral tone colouring. Berlioz, Glinka, Liszt, Wagner, modern French composers—Delibes, Bizet and others; those of the new Russian school—Borodin, Balakirev, Glazounov and Tschaikovsky—have brought this side of musical art to its zenith; they have eclipsed, as colourists, their predecessors, Weber, Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn, to whose genius, nevertheless, they are indebted for their own progress. In writing this book my chief aim has been to provide the well-informed reader with the fundamental principles of modern orchestration from the standpoint of brilliance and imagination, and I have devoted considerable space to the study of tonal resonance and orchestral combination.
I have tried to show the student how to obtain a certain quality of tone, how to acquire uniformity of structure and requisite power. I have specified the character of certain melodic figures and designs peculiar to each instrument or orchestral group, and reduced these questions briefly and clearly to general principles; in short I have endeavoured to furnish the pupil with matter and material as carefully and minutely studied as possible. Nevertheless I do not claim to instruct him as to how such information should be put to artistic use, nor to establish my examples in their rightful place in the poetic language of music. For, just as a handbook of harmony, counterpoint, or form presents the student with harmonic or polyphonic matter, principles of construction, formal arrangement, and sound technical methods, but will never endow him with the talent for composition, so a treatise on orchestration can demonstrate how to produce a well-sounding chordof certain tone-quality, uniformly distributed, how to detach a melody from its harmonic setting, correct progression of parts, and solve all such problems, but will never be able to teach the art of poetic orchestration. To orchestrate is to create, and this is something which cannot be taught.
It is a great mistake to say: this composer scores well, or, that composition is well orchestrated, for orchestration ispart of the very soul of the work. A work is thought out in terms of the orchestra, certain tone-colours being inseparable from it in the mind of its creator and native to it from the hour of its birth. Could the essence of Wagner's music be divorced from its orchestration? One might as well say that a picture is welldrawnin colours.
More than one classical and modern composer has lacked the capacity to orchestrate with imagination and power; the secret of colour has remained outside the range of his creative faculty. Does it follow that these composers do notknow howto orchestrate? Many among them have had greater knowledge of the subject than the mere colourist. Was Brahms ignorant of orchestration? And yet, nowhere in his works do we find evidence of brilliant tone or picturesque fancy. The truth is that his thoughts did not turn towards colour; his mind did not exact it.
The power of subtle orchestration is a secret impossible to transmit, and the composer who possesses this secret should value it highly, and never debase it to the level of a mere collection of formulæ learned by heart.
Here I may mention the case of works scored by others from the composer's rough directions. He who undertakes such work should enter as deeply as he may into the spirit of the composer, try to realise his intentions, and develop them in all their essential features.
Though one's own personality be subordinate to that of another, such orchestration is nevertheless creative work. But on the other hand, to score a composition never intended for the orchestra, is an undesirable practice. Many musicians have made this mistake and persist in it.[4]In any case this is the lowest form of instrumentation, akin to colour photography, though of course the process may be well or badly done.
As regards orchestration it has been my good fortune to belong to a first-rate school, and I have acquired the most varied experience. In the first place I have had the opportunity of hearing all my works performed by the excellent orchestra of the St. Petersburgh Opera. Secondly, having experienced leanings towards different directions, I have scored for orchestras of different sizes, beginning with simple combinations (my operaThe May Nightis written for natural horns and trumpets), and ending with the most advanced. In the third place, I conducted the choir of the Military Marine for several years and was therefore able to study wind-instruments. Finally I formed an orchestra of very young pupils, and succeeded in teaching them to play, quite competently, the works of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Glinka, etc. All this has enabled me to present this work to the public as the result of long experience.
As a starting-point I lay down the following fundamental axioms:
I.In the orchestra there is no such thing as ugly quality of tone.
II.Orchestral writing should be easy to play; a composer's work stands the best chance when the parts are well written.[5]
III.A work should be written for the size of orchestra that is to perform it, not for some imaginary body, as many composers persist in doing, introducing brass instruments in unusual keys upon which the music is impracticable because it is not played in the key the composer intends.
It is difficult to devise any method of learning orchestration without a master. As a general rule it is best to advance by degrees from the simplest scoring to the most complicated.
The student will probably pass through the following phases: 1. the phase during which he puts his entire faith in percussion instruments, believing that beauty of sound emanates entirely from this branch of the orchestra—this is the earliest stage; 2. the period when he acquires a passion for the harp, using it in every possible chord; 3. the stage during which he adores the wood-wind and horns, using stopped notes in conjunction with strings, muted orpizzicato; 4. the more advanced period, when he has come to recognise that the string group is the richest and most expressive of all. When the student works alone he must try to avoid the pitfalls of the first three phases. The best plan is to study full-scores, and listen to an orchestra, score in hand. But it is difficult to decide what music should be studied and heard. Music of all ages, certainly, but, principally, that which is fairly modern. Fairly modern music will teach the student how to score—classical music will prove of negative value to him. Weber, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer (The Prophet), Berlioz, Glinka, Wagner, Liszt, and modern French and Russian composers—these will prove his best guides. It is useless for a Berlioz or a Gevaert to quote examples from the works of Gluck. The musical idiom is too old-fashioned and strange to modern ears; such examples are of no further use today. The same may be said of Mozart and of Haydn (the father of modern orchestration).
The gigantic figure of Beethoven stands apart. His music abounds in countless leonine leaps of orchestral imagination, but his technique, viewed in detail, remains much inferior to his titanic conception. His use of the trumpets, standing out above the rest of the orchestra, the difficult and unhappy intervals he gives to the horns, the distinctive features of the string parts and his often highly-coloured employment of the wood-wind,—these features will combine causing the student of Beethoven to stumble upon a thousand and one points in contradiction.
It is a mistake to think that the beginner will light upon no simple and instructive examples in modern music, in that of Wagner and others. On the contrary, clearer, and better examples are to be found amongst modern composers than in what is called the range of classical music.
My aim in undertaking this work is to reveal the principles of modern orchestration in a somewhat different light than that usually brought to bear upon the subject. I have followed these principles in orchestrating my own works, and, wishing to impart some of my ideas to young composers, I have quoted examples from my own compositions, or given references to them, endeavouring to show, in all sincerity, what is successful and what is not. No one can know except the author himself the purpose and motives which governed him during the composition of a certain work, and the practice of explaining the intentions of a composer, so prevalent amongst annotators, however reverent and discreet, appears to me far from satisfactory. They will attribute a too closely philosophic, or excessively poetic meaning to a plain and simple fact. Sometimes the respect which great composers' names command will cause inferior examples to be quoted as good; cases of carelessness or ignorance, easily explained by the imperfections of current technique, give rise to whole pages of laborious exposition, in defence, or even in admiration of a faulty passage.
This book is written for those who have already studied instrumentation from Gevaert's excellent treatise, or any other well-known manual, and who have some knowledge of a number of orchestral scores.
I shall therefore only just touch on such technical questions as fingering, range, emission of sound etc.[6]
The present work deals with the combination of instruments in separate groups and in the entire orchestral scheme; the different means of producing strength of tone and unity of structure; the sub-division of parts; variety of colour and expression in scoring,—the whole, principally from the standpoint of dramatic music.
GENERAL REVIEW OF ORCHESTRAL GROUPS.
The following is the formation of the string quartet and the number of players required in present day orchestras, either in the theatre or concert-room.
In larger orchestras, the number of first violins may amount to 20 and even 24, the other strings being increased proportionately. But such a great quantity of strings overpowers the customary wood-wind section, and entails re-inforcing the latter. Sometimes orchestras contain less than 8 first violins; this is a mistake, as the balance between strings and wind is completely destroyed. In writing for the orchestra it is advisable to rely on a medium-sized body of strings. Played by a larger orchestra a work will be heard to greater advantage; played by a smaller one, the harm done will be minimised.
Whenever a group of strings is written for more than five parts—without taking double notes or chords into consideration—these parts may be increased by dividing each one into two, three and four sections, or even more (divisi). Generally, one or more of the principal parts is split up, the first or second violins, violas or violoncellos. The players are then divided by desks, numbers 1, 3, 5 etc. playing the upper part, and 2, 4, 6 etc., the lower; or else the musician on the right-hand of each desk plays the top line, the one on the left the bottom line. Dividing by threes is less easy, as the number of players in one group is not always divisible by three, and hence the difficulty of obtaining proper balance. Nevertheless there are cases where the composer should not hesitate to employ this method of dividing the strings, leaving it to the conductor to ensure equality of tone. It is always as well to mark how the passage is to be divided in the score; VnsI, 1, 2, 3 desks, 6 'Cellos div. à 3, and so on. Division into four and more parts is rare, but may be used inpianopassages, as it greatly reduces volume of tone in the group of strings.