CHAPTER XIIREST ESSENTIAL TO HEALTH

Why we should breathe through the nose

The cells in the skin of the nose secrete a watery fluid, and this fluid serves to moisten the air as it passes through the nose. Dry air irritates the mucous membrane which lines the nose, throat, and lungs, and it is very important that the air be moistened before it reaches the throat. Air is also warmed as it passes through the nose. Cold air is irritating to the throat and lungs. The small hairs in the nose catch the dust and dirt in the air and prevent it from going into the lungs.

The nose was made to breathe through, and all the airthat goes into your lungs should pass through your nose, in order that it may be moistened, warmed, and cleansed.

Fig. 28.Showing position of adenoids and tonsils in the throat.

Why some children breathe through the mouth

Frequently we see boys and girls breathing through the mouth. They do this because there is something in the nose that prevents the air from passing freely through it. If there were nothing in the way, the child would breathe through the nose instead of the mouth, because the natural way of breathing is through the nose.

The most common reason for mouth-breathing is the growth of small lumps in the throat just behind the nose. These little lumps are called adenoids. They are not natural, and should be taken out. We do not know why they grow in some children and not in others, but we do know that they should be taken out so that the child can breathe easily through the nose. Large tonsils also causeboys and girls to breathe through the mouth. Tonsils that are large enough to cause the child to breathe through the mouth ought always to be taken out. Large tonsils and adenoids are often found in the same child.

Effects of mouth-breathing

When a child breathes through his mouth all the time, his face takes on a peculiar shape. His upper lip grows long, his lower jaw drops back, and his whole face looks flat. His voice has a peculiar sound, and he finds it very hard to keep up in his classes at school. Children with adenoids and large tonsils are always backward in their school work, and may become deaf if the adenoids and tonsils are not removed.

If you breathe through your mouth instead of through the nose, go to the doctor and let him see if you have adenoids or large tonsils; if you have, let him take them out. You cannot possibly grow into a strong, healthy man or woman if you have adenoids and do not have them removed.

Questions.1. What does the body take out of the air? 2. What does the body put into the air? 3. What effect does impure air have on the body? 4. Why should one sleep with windows open? 5. What causes the unpleasant odor in a crowded room? 6. How would workmen benefit by properly ventilated workshops? 7. Name the helpful ways in which the air is changed while passing through the nose. 8. Why do some children breathe through the mouth? 9. What effect comes from mouth-breathing?Remember.1. Impure air destroys health. 2. Never sleep in a room where the window is closed. 3. Avoid going into public places or workshops that are not well ventilated. 4. Air must pass through the nose before it is fit for the lungs. 5. Mouth-breathing is not natural and is usually due to some defect that can easily be cured.

Remember.1. Impure air destroys health. 2. Never sleep in a room where the window is closed. 3. Avoid going into public places or workshops that are not well ventilated. 4. Air must pass through the nose before it is fit for the lungs. 5. Mouth-breathing is not natural and is usually due to some defect that can easily be cured.

Why exercise is necessary

Exercise is necessary to make our bodies grow and become strong. If we stayed in bed all the time, our muscles would not grow and we could not even walk. If we did not exercise them, the cells in our brains would not grow and we should not know anything. Every part of our body must have exercise, that is, each part must do some work every day. If we used only one part of the body and did not give the other parts any work to do, only the part that we used would grow, while all the rest of the body would be small and weak.

Proportion of rest required

While every part should do some work each day, the whole body needs also to have a proper amount of rest. Even the heart, which seems to be working all the time, must rest. It rests between each beat. The muscles with which we breathe rest between each breath. Every person must have a certain amount of rest each day. A man should have at least eight hours' sleep in every twenty-four hours; boys and girls should have from nine to ten hours' sleep in every twenty-four. It is only while we are sleeping that we have complete rest.

Effect of overwork

Everybody should have some work to do. Boys and girls should learn that work is a part of life, though they should not be expected to do too much. They should not be required to get up at four o'clock in the morning and work until eight, then go to school until four in the afternoon, and then work again until dark. They cannot do this and keep well. Such children will surely neglect their lessons and will fail to keep up in their classes. It is not the children'sfault, but the fault of the people who give them so much to do outside of school.

Sometimes bright children fall behind in their classes and seem to be sleepy during school hours. Very often these children do not have to do any work at home, but play all the time they are out of school. We usually find that these children not only play all the afternoon, but also go to parties at night and often stay up until midnight.

Fig. 29.Children work when they play. The little girl skipping rope is killing the body cells by overwork; she has skipped more than one hundred times and is exhausted.

Ways in which children overwork their bodies

You may think it is not work to go to a party, but it really is. You are working the muscles and the cells of your brain when you are playing games, and these get tired from play work just as they do from working. It is more fun to do play work than to do real work, but the cells are tired and need rest after either kind of exercise. When you go to a party and stay up until midnight, you do not get nine hours of sleep. How do you expect the cells of your bodies to get enough rest when you treat them in this way?

Another thing you do at parties is to eat food that tastes good, but which is not good building material or nourishing for the cells of the body. These things eaten late at night stay in your stomach long after you have gone to bed, and the cells of your stomach do not have a chance to rest at all.

Children should have their parties in the afternoon. You can have just as much fun at a party in the afternoon as you can at night, and then your stomach will have time to dispose of the cake and candies you have eaten, and will be ready to rest when you go to bed.

Small children should be in bed by eight o'clock at night, and even big girls and boys should be asleep by ten o'clock every night. If you do not give your bodies rest, you can never grow into strong men and women.

The importance of regular meals

We have learned that every part of the body needs regular rest. Your stomach is a part of your body. In the stomach and intestines all the food is changed so that the little cells can make use of it. Do you think the cook would serve good meals if she were kept cooking all the time, both night and day? You know she would soon stop cooking for you if you did not give her time to rest. Your stomach does work that is even more important to you than cooking.

Why meals should be at least four hours apart

It takes about four hours for your stomach to dispose of what you give it at a single meal. If you eat your breakfast at eight o'clock, your stomach is going to be kept busy to get rid of it by noon. Of course you expect to give it more work to do at noon; that is, you expect to eat a good luncheon. It will be after four o'clock by the time your stomach has finished the task you put on it at noon, andthere will be only about an hour and a half for the stomach to rest before you will be ready to give it another four hours' task, digesting your supper. This means that your stomach cannot go to sleep until ten o'clock. If you eat three meals a day, you will give your stomach just about two hours' rest between eight in the morning and ten at night. If you let it rest from ten at night until eight in the morning, it is not likely to give you any trouble.

When and why candy eating is harmful

Some people will not let their stomachs rest at all. Often boys and girls give their stomachs extra work to do by eating sweetmeats in the middle of the morning while their stomachs are still busy with breakfast. Then, as soon as school is out in the afternoon, they want to eat more cake and candy, and thus take away from the stomach the little rest it has a right to expect before it goes to work on supper. Then suppose they go to a party and eat again about midnight. How much time will the stomach have to rest before breakfast?

When candy eating is not harmful

Now, I have not said that boys and girls must not eat candy; and what is more, I am not going to say any such thing. You may go home and tell your mother that candy is good for girls and boys and that they like it so well they ought to have it—no, not all the time. Here is the part that some of you will not like. Girls and boys ought to have all they want just after eating luncheon or dinner. If you have eaten a hearty meal, it is entirely safe for you to eat candy then; you will not be giving extra work to your stomach, for the candy will be taken care of along with the rest of the meal.

Questions.1. Why should we all take exercise? 2. How much rest is needed each day? 3. Name some of the effectsof overwork. 4. How do children overwork their bodies? 5. Why should children have their parties in the afternoon? 6. Why should meal hours be regular? 7. When and why is candy eating harmful? 8. When is candy eating not harmful?Remember.1. Proper rest is necessary to health. 2. Rest from play is as necessary as rest from work. 3. You must give the stomach rest by having regular meal hours and by eating nothing between meals.

Remember.1. Proper rest is necessary to health. 2. Rest from play is as necessary as rest from work. 3. You must give the stomach rest by having regular meal hours and by eating nothing between meals.

The loss of sight

Sight is one of the greatest blessings we have. Think how dreadful it is to be blind. If you take care of your eyes, there is no reason why you should be blind; but if you do not take care of your eyes, there is a possibility that you may lose your sight. Most of the blind people in the world became blind because their eyes were not given proper care, and most of this lack of care happened when these people were babies.

Figs.30 and 31. The roller towel is a common source of infection of eyes in schools; every school should have properly constructed wash-rooms, with individual towels.

How germs get into the eyes

Many of the diseases that affect the eyes are catching. They are not carried through the air, but are transmitted by the use of a towel or handkerchief used by someone who had the disease. Never use the towel or handkerchief that another has used.

Germs may be rubbed into the eyes. Keep your hands away from your eyes. Your hands may have disease germs on them, and when you rub your eyes you may put the disease germs into them.

How eyes are overworked

Many boys and girls ruin their eyes by making them do too much work. They do this by reading in a poor light, by reading where the light strikes into the eyes, or by reading in a bad position, as when in bed or lying down. When you are reading, drawing, or doing any work with the eyes, always have the best light possible, which means that the light should fall on your book or work over your left shoulder. If you are only reading, it does not make much difference which shoulder the light comes over, provided it comes from behind. If you are writing or drawing, and the light comes over your right shoulder, it makes the shadow of your hand fall just where you want to see.

Figs.32 and 33. Correct positions for reading and writing.

Another way of working your eyes too much is by trying to see when the eyes are not focused right. Sometimes people are said to be near-sighted, because they cannot see very well at a distance. This is due to the fact that theeyeball is too long, so that the lens does not cause the rays of light to focus on the retina. Some people are called far-sighted. This means that they can see well at a distance, but that it is hard for them to see things close to them. Far-sighted children can usually see things near by, but they do this by making the muscle that rules the lens of the eye work too hard.

Method of testing the eyes

Probably your teacher has a test chart and can tell you whether your eyes are properly focused. If your eyes are not focused right, that is, if you cannot see the line of letters marked20when you are twenty feet from this chart, there is something wrong with your eyes. In that case, you are not only injuring them by trying to study, but you are hurting the whole body by overworking a part of it. If you cannot see the letters on the test card clearly at a distance of twenty feet, ask your father to send you to a specialist who will fit you with the proper glasses or will treat your eyes so that you can see well.

How to test the hearing

Sometimes children are backward in their school work because they cannot hear well. Your teacher can test your hearing by holding a watch near your ear. If you cannot hear a watch tick when it is held six feet from your ear, ask your father to take you to your doctor, that he may treat your ears.

How to care for the ears

If your hearing is perfect, the best way to take care of the ears is to let them alone. Never try to dig into the canal that leads to the middle ear. The ears must of course be washed to keep them clean, but in washing the ear you should not touch the delicate canal leading to the drum. A great specialist once said, "Never put anything smaller than your elbow into your ear," to which another greatspecialist added, "And wrap a towel around your elbow." Never try to dig the wax out of your ears; it belongs in your ears; it is there for a purpose, so let it alone. If it becomes hardened, you cannot get it out and will only injure your ears in trying to do so. An ear spoon is a dangerous thing.

Questions.1. State the chief cause of loss of sight. 2. How can you keep germs out of your eyes? 3. Name three ways by which you may overwork the eyes. 4. Tell how to take care of the ears.Remember.1. Overworking the eyes is as injurious as overworking the stomach. 2. Keep your hands away from your eyes; germs on your hands may get into your eyes and cause them to become sore. 3. You overwork your eyes when you try to read or write in a poor light or in a bad position, as when lying down. 4. You overwork your eyes when you try to study with eyes that are not properly focused. 5. Keep your fingers out of your ears. 6. Take care of your ears by letting them alone.

Questions.1. State the chief cause of loss of sight. 2. How can you keep germs out of your eyes? 3. Name three ways by which you may overwork the eyes. 4. Tell how to take care of the ears.

Remember.1. Overworking the eyes is as injurious as overworking the stomach. 2. Keep your hands away from your eyes; germs on your hands may get into your eyes and cause them to become sore. 3. You overwork your eyes when you try to read or write in a poor light or in a bad position, as when lying down. 4. You overwork your eyes when you try to study with eyes that are not properly focused. 5. Keep your fingers out of your ears. 6. Take care of your ears by letting them alone.

If you break or cut the skin on your body, you make an opening through which germs can get in. You cannot always help breaking your skin, but you can always wash the break with soap and water, and put a clean cloth over it to keep out germs.

The work of the sweat glands

The work of the little sweat glands is very important to your health. These glands are just as important as the kidneys, and if they did not do their work, you would die very quickly. If your body is covered with dirt, the work of these glands is seriously interfered with; and when the sweat glands are not doing their full amount of work, the kidneys must do more than their share. It is never right to make one part of your body do the work intended for another part.

Fig. 34.A model bathroom.

When the body is dirty, not only are the sweat glands interfered with, but the little sebaceous (oil) glands become plugged up, and blackheads appear on the face and body.

Importance of bathing

In order that the various glands of the skin may be kept in good health, it is necessary for us to keep clean. To do this we wash our faces and hands and bathe our bodies. Someone may ask, "How often ought a person to take abath?" The question cannot be answered, except to say, "Just as often as may be necessary for you to keep absolutely clean." Some people do not have to bathe as often as others, but no one can keep clean unless he takes a bath at least twice a week.

Hot or cold baths

Another question that is frequently asked is, "Is it better to take a bath in cold or hot water?" This is another question that cannot be answered in the same way for every person. A cold bath is more stimulating than a warm bath. If, after you have taken a cold bath and rubbed yourself briskly with a rough towel, the skin becomes red and warm, a cold bath is best for you. But if, after you have taken a cold bath and rubbed yourself for not more than ten minutes, the skin appears bluish and cold, a cold bath is not good for you, and you should not take it. A cold bath should always be taken in the morning, just after getting out of bed, and a warm bath should always be taken in the evening, just before going to bed.

Fig. 35.A nail properly cared for, and a nail not properly cared for. Which should you prefer to have?

How to care for the nails

The finger nails and toe nails are a part of the skin and they also need to be taken care of. You will see at the root of your finger nails a thin layer of skin that is inclined to grow out with the nail. If this skin is not kept pushed back it becomes rough, breaks into little shreds, and forms "hang nails." This little band of skin should always be kept carefully pushed back. The finger nails should be kept evenly and neatly trimmed, but they should not becut so close to the skin that the ends of the fingers project beyond the nails. The nails are for the protection of the ends of the fingers and toes. Nails that are trimmed unevenly and nails that are bitten off are ugly and indicate untidy habits. The shape of the nails should follow the outline of the ends of the finger. Neither is it a sensible fashion to trim the nails to points or to let them grow very long.

The toe nails need attention just as much as do the finger nails. They should be trimmed to follow the shape of the toe. Failure to trim the toe nails properly will result in ingrowing nails.

Dirt is very likely to collect under the nails. This should always be carefully cleaned out. You cannot wash this dirt out unless you use a stiff nail brush. If you clean your nails just after you wash your hands, you will find that it will be much easier to get the dirt out while the dirt and the nail are both softened by the soap and water. In cleaning your nails, use a dull nail cleaner or a smooth wooden stick. Do not scrape the inside of the nail with a sharp knife. This scraping of the inside of the nails will cause them to catch the dirt more easily, as well as to grow thicker and thicker until they become very ugly. Neat, clean finger nails help to make pretty hands; dirty, untidy nails spoil the prettiest hands.

Questions.1. What are the uses of the sweat glands? 2. How often should people take baths? 3. How can you tell whether a hot or a cold bath is better for you? 4. Tell how finger nails should be cared for. 5. How should toe nails be treated?Remember.1. If you do not keep your body clean, the glands of the skin cannot do their work properly. 2. Every personshould take a bath at least twice a week; some persons need a bath every day in order to keep clean. 3. If you take a bath in cold water, and the skin does not become warm and pink when you rub it with a rough towel, a cold bath is not good for you. 4. Cold baths should be taken in the morning on getting up. 5. Warm baths should be taken in the evening before going to bed. 6. Finger nails should always be kept clean and neat; dirty, untidy nails make ugly hands.

Remember.1. If you do not keep your body clean, the glands of the skin cannot do their work properly. 2. Every personshould take a bath at least twice a week; some persons need a bath every day in order to keep clean. 3. If you take a bath in cold water, and the skin does not become warm and pink when you rub it with a rough towel, a cold bath is not good for you. 4. Cold baths should be taken in the morning on getting up. 5. Warm baths should be taken in the evening before going to bed. 6. Finger nails should always be kept clean and neat; dirty, untidy nails make ugly hands.

Many people are killing the cells of their bodies by taking certain poisons into them. There are many kinds of poisons that can be taken into the body, but we are going to learn now about only two. These are tobacco and alcohol.

Fig. 36.Effect of cigarette smoking.

Proof that tobacco is a poison

Tobacco is a poison. Those of you who have tried to smoke know this, because it made you sick the first time you tried it. There are many other indications that tobacco is a poison. We know that it affects the red blood cells in such a way that they do not carry the oxygen as well as do those of people who do not smoke. We know that it has a very bad effect on the heart and that it interferes with the action of the nervous system.

The extra work caused by tobacco

When certain poisons get into the body, the blood makes something that will counteract the effects of those poisons. After one has used tobacco for some time, the cells of the body will take care of the tobacco poison by making an antidote for it. More than this, they begin to want it all the time. The tobacco user forces the cells of his body to make an antidote for this poison every time he uses tobacco. Thus he makes the cells do work that is unnecessary, and keeps them from doing work that is necessary.

Other bad effects of tobacco: (1) On the nose and throat

Tobacco smoke irritates the cells that line the throat and nose and causes inflammation. This is why so many smokers have catarrh. Smoking is not the only cause of catarrh, for people who do not smoke often have this trouble, but it is one of the most frequent causes. Smoking also irritates the throat so badly that many of those who smoke have "smoker's throat." This is a bad form of sore throat that can be cured only by stopping the use of tobacco.

Fig. 37.The athlete knows that alcohol and tobacco are foes to speed, strength, and nervous control. (From photograph of "The Sprinter," modelled by Dr. R. Tait McKenzie.)

(2) On the blood

People who smoke a great deal have fewer red corpuscles (the little red cells of the blood) than those who do not smoke. Especially is this true of cigarette smokers. It is the lack of red blood cells that causes the cigarette smoker to look pale and sallow.

It is probably not the direct effect of tobacco that causes the loss of red blood cells, but something that is connected with the act of smoking. When you take smoke into your mouth, you take in at the same time a gas knownascarbon monoxid. This gas is very poisonous to the body, and combines with the red blood cells in such a way that they cannot take up the oxygen in the lungs and carry it to the rest of the cells in the body. The cigarette smoker almost always inhales the smoke, and thus he absorbs a great deal more of the carbon monoxid than the man who does not inhale the smoke. Of course, the more of this gas he takes into his body, the more red blood cells will be affected and the less oxygen will be taken to the other cells.

(3) On the nervous system

We do not know just how tobacco affects the cells of the nervous system. It may be that they are affected mostly by being deprived of oxygen, or it may be that the tobacco affects them directly. However the harm is done, we know that the cells of the nervous system are affected by tobacco. One of the nerves that is most commonly affected by the use of tobacco is the nerve of the eye, the nerve that enables us to see. We know that when people use tobacco a great deal they sometimes lose their sight. This does not happen to everyone who uses tobacco, but you can never tell whom it will affect in this way. The only safe thing to do is not to use tobacco, and then you will know that you will not lose your sight from this cause.

(4) On the stomach

The use of tobacco affects the stomach. People who use tobacco a great deal are likely to have indigestion. The tobacco causes this probably by depriving the stomach cells of oxygen through its effect on the blood cells.

(5) On the heart

Tobacco has a very bad effect on the heart. People who use much tobacco have what they call "palpitation of the heart," but doctors call it "tobacco heart," because it is caused by the use of tobacco. No insurance company will insure a person who has "tobacco heart."

Most boys grow up to be men before they manage to use enough tobacco to cause tobacco heart. However, long before they are grown, they show that the tobacco has affected their hearts, because they are short of breath and stand about as much chance of winning a race as does a mouth-breather.

Effects of alcohol:

The effect of alcohol is a subject on which I want to speak very plainly and frankly, because I do not want the boys and girls who read this to get the same idea that I got when I was in school, or to be affected by it as I was. When I was a little boy I was taught that if a person drank alcohol in any form the lining of his stomach would be eaten up. In proof of this statement I was shown a picture of an ulcerated stomach that was said to have resulted from drinking whisky. Naturally I expected to find that people who drank whisky would not be able to eat anything at all, or would be troubled a great deal with pain in their stomachs. To my surprise, I found that many people had ulcers of the stomach who never took an alcoholic drink, while many of those who drank a great deal seemed to have the best of appetites and were never troubled with their stomachs. As a result, I came to the conclusion that all this talk about the evil effects of alcohol was foolishness. Later I studied medicine, and learned that the effect of alcohol on the stomach is, in reality, the least of its evils. But I want to impress upon you that, as a result of forty years' study, I consider alcohol the most dangerous thing in the world to-day. By "alcohol" we mean any drink that contains alcohol, such as whisky, wine, brandy, beer, etc.

(1) On the stomach

When alcohol is taken into the stomach, it first causes a congestion; that is, it causes an increase in the quantityof blood in the blood vessels of the stomach. It might seem that this would aid digestion in the stomach, but it does not, because alcohol affects the food in the stomach in such a way that it prevents the gastric juice from acting on the food. If the use of alcohol is persisted in, it causes the little cells in the stomach that make the gastric juice to become filled with fat, and then those cells cannot make the gastric juice. Thus, continued use of alcohol causes a smaller supply of gastric juice, and the food passes from the stomach into the intestines without having been acted upon by the gastric juice, as it should have been. The result is that the food decomposes in the intestines and a poison is formed. This poison is taken up by the vessels that carry the food from the intestines and kills a great many of the cells of the body.

Alcohol does not burn holes in the stomach, but it destroys the usefulness of the stomach by its action on the cells that secrete the gastric juice.

(2) On the liver

When alcohol is taken into the stomach, very little of it reaches the intestines. It is rapidly absorbed by the lining of the stomach and passes into the blood. The blood from the stomach goes directly to the liver. The alcohol makes the cells of the liver hard and causes them to become filled with fat, as it does the cells of the stomach. In this way it destroys the action of these cells and prevents their doing the work for which they are intended. From the liver the alcohol goes with the blood to all parts of the body, and it has its influence on all the cells in the body. This influence is always harmful.

(3) On the body's powers of resistance

We know that when a man who is in the habit of drinking gets pneumonia, he is far more likely to die than is onewho is not in the habit of using alcoholic drinks. The man who drinks cannot resist the effects of disease as can one who does not drink. This shows that the use of alcohol reduces our resisting powers, and puts our cells in such condition that we cannot overcome the effects of disease.

People who are sick with a slow disease like consumption are often advised by their friends to take whisky to brace them up. It is true that the immediate effect of the whisky is to make the patient feel a little better, but the final effect is to leave him in a much weaker condition than before. More than this, the cells are much less able to resist the disease germs than they were before the alcohol was taken. When people are exposed to such diseases as scarlet fever and smallpox, they may think that if they take a drink of whisky they will not be so liable to contract the disease. It is just the other way. The alcohol reduces the resisting powers of the cells of the body, and anything that does this renders a person more liable to contract any disease to which he is exposed.

(4) On the nervous system

The effect of alcohol on the cells of the nervous system is very marked. Continued use will injure the nervous system and result in a kind of insanity called delirium tremens. It will also cause other forms of insanity. The effect of alcohol on the parent is passed on to the children of the next generation, and even beyond this. A large percentage of idiotic children are the offspring of alcoholic parents.

(5) On the morals

The use of alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong. More young men have become criminals from the use of alcohol than from any other one cause. Anyone who readsthe daily papers can see that many criminals give the use of alcohol as an excuse for having committed a crime.

(6) On brain work

Some people will tell you that alcohol stimulates the brain, so that one can work faster and better. This is not true. Tests have been made in this matter, and it has been found that men doing mental work will work about one tenth slower and make one fourth more mistakes when given one drink of whisky a day, than they will when not given any whisky. Ifonedrink of whisky a day thus reduces a man's power and accuracy in doing mental work, what do you think three drinks, or ten drinks will do?

Fig. 38.The mind not clouded by alcohol works quickly and makes few mistakes.Fig. 39.The mind clouded by alcohol works slowly and makes many mistakes.

Fig. 38.The mind not clouded by alcohol works quickly and makes few mistakes.

Fig. 39.The mind clouded by alcohol works slowly and makes many mistakes.

What business men think of men who drink

Many business men drink, and they know the results of alcohol not only from the effects they have observed in others, but also from the effect they know it to have on themselves. When a man applies to them for a position, these business men almost invariably ask him if he drinks.The man who does not drink stands nine chances in ten of securing the position, while the man who drinks stands only one chance in ten. This shows what business men think of the effect of alcohol, even when taken in moderate quantities. They know that it reduces a man's power to do mental as well as physical work, that it causes him to make mistakes, and that it may finally destroy his morals and result in his becoming a thief or a criminal.

Questions.1. How do we know that tobacco is a poison? 2. How does tobacco make extra work for the body? 3. What effect does tobacco have on the nose and throat? 4. What is the effect of tobacco on the blood? 5. On the nervous system? 6. On the heart? 7. Mention some of the false ideas about the effect of alcohol. 8. How does alcohol affect the stomach? 9. The liver? 10. In what ways does alcohol reduce the resisting powers of the body? 11. How does alcohol affect the nervous system? 12. How does it influence mental work? 13. What do business men think of drinkers? 14. What influence has alcohol on the next generation?Remember.1. Tobacco is a poison that has a very bad effect on the nervous system, the blood, the heart, the stomach, the nose, and the throat. 2. Alcohol is a poison and not a food. 3. Alcohol injures the stomach, the liver, and the nervous system. 4. Alcohol reduces the power to do accurate mental work. 5. Alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong, and encourages crime.

Remember.1. Tobacco is a poison that has a very bad effect on the nervous system, the blood, the heart, the stomach, the nose, and the throat. 2. Alcohol is a poison and not a food. 3. Alcohol injures the stomach, the liver, and the nervous system. 4. Alcohol reduces the power to do accurate mental work. 5. Alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong, and encourages crime.

We have learned that the body is made up of cells, and that each cell is alive. The cells in our bodies cannot live separately. There are, however, certain animals and plants that are each made up of a single cell. These animals and plants are called germs, and some of them cause disease.

Different germs cause different diseases

These germs are so exceedingly small that we can see them only with the aid of a microscope. They differ in appearance one from another, as a pine tree differs from an ash, or an American child from a Chinese child. When you plant your garden, you put sweet peas in one place and asters in another, and you know that you will have sweet peas growing where you planted the pea seeds, and asters growing where the aster seeds were put. So it is with these little germs; you will no more get tuberculosis from typhoid fever germs than you would get asters from pea seeds.

Now, while there are many, many kinds of germs in the world, there are only certain ones that cause certain diseases, and we have learned where these germs like to live and how to kill them. We also know that they come only from some person or animal sick with the particular disease which they cause. Typhoid fever germs are not given off by a person suffering with tuberculosis, nor are diphtheria germs given off by a typhoid fever patient, but thegerm of each disease is given off by some person or animal suffering from that particular disease.

How sickness due to germs can be prevented

If we kill all the germs that come from people sick with a certain disease, no one else can catch that disease. Knowing this, it seems unnecessary for anyone ever to be sick with disease that is caused by a germ. This is literally true, and the only reason that we have germ diseases is because we do not kill the germs that come from the sick people.

Professor Irving Fisher of Yale University has said, "It is entirely possible to wipe out consumption within a single generation." It may not actually be done so quickly, but it is certain that the disease can finally be wiped out, though it may require many generations to accomplish it.

Why, then, are germ diseases allowed to exist? Simply because so many people do not know the facts; and because many who do know will not take the trouble to kill the germs, even when they realize that some one else may get the disease as a result of their carelessness. What do you think of a woman who said, "I do not care if my neighbor's children do get scarlet fever from us; she is not a friend of mine, any way"? A woman has been heard to make such a statement to a health officer. It is just such people as this who spread disease.

Questions.1. How may germs be compared to seeds? 2. What do we know about disease germs that will help us to get rid of them? 3. How is it possible for us to get rid of consumption and other germ diseases?Remember.1. While there are many kinds of germs in the world, only a few cause disease. 2. The germ that causes a certain disease will cause that disease and no other. 3. It is entirely possible to kill all the germs that cause disease.

Remember.1. While there are many kinds of germs in the world, only a few cause disease. 2. The germ that causes a certain disease will cause that disease and no other. 3. It is entirely possible to kill all the germs that cause disease.

We shall not try to learn here all the ways by which it is possible to destroy the germs of disease as they come from sick people. But there are certain rules (we sometimes call them fundamental principles) that you must know, if you hope to keep well and to prevent others from getting sick.

Fig. 40.How diseases are frequently transmitted to children.

Why we should stay away from the sickroom

The first of these rules is:Do not go into the room where any one is sick unless it is absolutely necessary. No one but the nurse should sleep in the room with a sick person. We know that certain diseases are communicable (catching), but it has not yet been determined whether some others are communicable or not. It has not been proved, for instance, that we cannot catch rheumatism from another person. Only a few years ago it was believed that one could not take consumption from another person, but now we know that this is the very way to get it. Therefore, stay away from sick people as much as possible. It is not good for the patient to have people around him, and it is dangerous for the well to come in contact with the sick.

Not using things used by the sick

The second rule is:Do not use anything used by a sick person until it has been washed. This is a good rule toapply to things used by a well person also. It is neither safe nor pleasant to eat from the spoon or fork, or to use the napkin or towel which has been used by someone else.

Sometimes children think the food prepared for a sick person is ever so much nicer than that set before themselves, and wish they could have a little of it. How often have we seen a sick mother give her little ones "a taste" from the spoon with which she is eating. This is very dangerous, and if she knew it, the mother would cut her hand off before exposing her children to this danger.

Reason for scalding things used by the sick

Third:Everything taken from a sickroom should be boiled before it is used again. The knives, forks, and plates should not be put with other dishes until after they have been separately washed and boiled. Towels, napkins, bedding, and clothing from a sickroom should not be washed with other bedding and clothing, but should be washed and boiled separately. Some people send out the clothes from the sickroom with the rest of their washing, and in this way give disease to others.

How excreta from the sick should be treated

Fourth:All discharges (sputum, urine, bowel discharges, and matter from sores) from any sick person should be thoroughly disinfected before being finally disposed of. The sputum should be received on little rags or paper napkins, and burned; and the other discharges should be disinfected with some poison that will kill the germs. We shall say more about disinfection when we come to study the prevention of special diseases.

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