1. Distinguish between local and national spirit in the Revolutionary period.
2. Describe the first notable attempt at union.
3. What plan of union was proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754?
4. Name several other early attempts at union.
5. Outline the character of the Articles of Confederation.
6. What were the chief defects of the Confederation government?
7. Describe the failure of the Confederation government.
8. Outline clearly the three important reasons for the failure of the states to unite before 1787.
9. Explain the phrase, "Negative forces favoring union."
10. To what extent was the constitutional convention of 1787 the result of positive forces?
11. Explain clearly the statement that in 1787 American democracy had not yet been fully developed.
1. Williamson,Readings in American Democracy, chapter iii.
Or all of the following:
2. Becker,Beginnings of the American People, chapter v.
3. Fiske,The Critical Period of American History, chapter iv.
4. Guitteau,Government and Politics in the United States, chapter xix.
5. McLaughlin,The Confederation and the Constitution, chapter xiii.
1. In what sense was Benjamin Franklin the first American? (Becker, pages 190-200.)
2. Describe the commercial warfare carried on by the several states during the critical period. (Fiske, pages 144-147.)
3. Explain why American credit in Europe failed during the critical period. (Fiske, pages 155-157.)
4. Describe the attempts to patch up the Confederation government. (McLaughlin, chapter xiii.)
5. Explain the statement that "division is sometimes the prelude to more effective union." (Becker, pages 189-191.)
6. What did the Alexandria Conference of 1785 accomplish? (Guitteau, page 215.)
7. What was the Virginia plan? (Guitteau, page 217.)
8. What was the New Jersey plan? (Guitteau, page 217.)
9. What was the "Great Compromise"? (Guitteau, page 218.)
10. What was the Three-Fifths Compromise? (Guitteau, pages 218-219.)
11. Describe the opposition to the ratification of the Constitution (Guitteau, pages 222-224.)
1. Trace the beginnings of railroad transportation in your section, and describe the effect of improved methods of transportation upon the ability of different communities in your section to co÷perate with one another. (Consult local histories.)
2. To what extent does the newspaper help you to understand the character and ideals of individuals beyond your community?
3. Contrast the telephone and the postal service as influencing the development of the co÷perative spirit in the city. In rural districts.
4. To what extent would improved methods of transportation and communication lead to a closer co÷peration between the rural and urban districts in your state?
5. To what extent has the economic interdependence of different members of your community led to a better understanding? To a closer identity of interests?
6. Difficulties of travel in colonial times. (Crawford,Social Life in Old New England, chapterx.)
7. Postal facilities in the colonial period. (Bogart,Economic History of the United States, pages 82-83.)
8. Diversity of economic interests among the colonies. (Bogart and Thompson,Readings in the Economic History of the United States, pages 29-42.)
9. Union under the Continental Congresses. (Beard,American Government and Politics, pages 21-25.)
10. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. (McLaughlin,The Confederation and the Constitution, pages 187-190.)
11. The work of the Constitutional Convention. (Beard,American Government and Politics, pages 44-53. See also any other standard text on American history or government.)
12. Madison's criticism of the Articles of Confederation. (Beard,Readings in American Government and Politics, pages 38-43.)
13. Hamilton's plea for a strong national government. (Beard,Readings in American Government and Politics, pages 47-49.)
14. The influence of economic interests upon the Constitution of 1787. (Beard,An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States, pages 324-325.)
15. The outlook for American democracy in 1789. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, chapter xxxviii.)
31. THE AIM OF THIS CHAPTER.—The form of government established in this country by the Constitution of 1787 is known as a republic. A republic may be defined as a representative democracy, or, in the popular sense of the term, simply as a democracy. Now, to point out that a government is democratic does not necessarily mean that it is a sound government. Granting that self-government is morally right, the fate of a democracy will depend, partly upon the character of the people, and partly upon the nature of the governmental machinery through which that people expresses its will. The proof of democracy is in its workings. The aim of this chapter is not to pass judgment upon democracy, but rather to outline the essential characteristics of American constitutional government. When this background has been secured we shall be in a position to begin a detailed study of applied democracy, to point out its merits, to call attention to its defects, and to consider how and to what extent it may be improved.
32. STRENGTH.—American constitutional government is a strong government. The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation were avoided in framing the Constitution of 1787. Whereas the Confederation government was really headless, the Constitution of 1787 provided for a strong executive. The Confederation Congress could not levy taxes, but the Congress of the United States has adequate powers in this regard. There can be no recurrence of one of the chief financial troubles of the Revolutionary period, for at the present time the several states may neither coin money nor emit bills of credit. The Federal government has exclusive control of foreign affairs, so that no state may individually enter into any agreement with a foreign power. The Federal Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and no state action may contradict it. Unity has given us strength, and great crises, such as the Civil War and the World War, have ended by increasing that strength.
33. THE CHECK AND BALANCE SYSTEM.—A striking characteristic feature of American constitutional government is the check and balance system. By this system we mean all those constitutional provisions which divide and subdivide governmental power among various sets of public agents. [Footnote: For a fuller discussion of the check and balance system see Chapter XXXIX.]
This division of powers is threefold. First, there is a division of power between the Federal government and the governments of the several states. The states are obliged to act in concert on most questions involving the nation as a whole, but the Federal Constitution safeguards the rights of the states by reserving to them all powers not specifically delegated to the Federal government. Second, in both Federal and state governments, power is still further distributed among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches in such a way that each branch constitutes a check upon the other two. Third, in both Federal and state governments there is a division of power within each of the three branches of government. Thus both the President of the United States and the governors of the various states are at least partially controlled by subordinate executive officials, while in the legislative branch of both Federal and state governments the upper and lower houses constitute a check upon one another. In the case of both Federal and state judicial systems there is a division of jurisdiction.
34. THE CHECK AND BALANCE SYSTEM SECURES STABILITY.—American government is not only strong, it is stable. This stability is due chiefly to the admirable way in which different governmental agents are balanced against one another. The check and balance system renders us safe from the danger of anarchy, for though ultimate control is vested in the people, sufficient powers are entrusted to the governmental mechanism to protect it against popular passion. The system likewise protects us against despotism. So long as the Constitution endures, neither the Federal government nor the governments of the states may destroy each other. The undue concentration of political power is likewise rendered difficult by the division of power between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of both Federal and state governments.
The significance of a properly applied check and balance system appears clearly when we compare our government with that of various other republics. In many of the ancient republics, for example, the powers of government were so unequally and so indefinitely divided that republican government degenerated either to despotism or to anarchy. Within the last century many Latin-American republics have modeled their governments after ours, and yet some of these republics are constantly threatened by either revolution or despotism. The explanation of this, according to Elihu Root, is that these republics have adapted our check and balance system so carelessly that they find it difficult, if not impossible, to maintain a really stable government. [Footnote: Here we are pointing out the fundamental merits of the check and balance system; later (Chapters XXXIV, XXXV, and XXXVI) we shall have occasion to notice some of the disadvantages of this system.]
35. THE RIGHTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL.—We have not purchased strength and stability at the expense of personal freedom, for both Federal and state constitutions specifically safeguard the rights of the individual. The fundamental guarantees set forth in the Magna Charta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights were cherished by the American colonists, and in 1791 they formed the basis of the first ten Amendments to the Federal Constitution. Provisions similarly designed to safeguard individual rights are found in the constitution of every state in the Union. [Footnote: For an enumeration of these rights, see the first ten Amendments to the Federal Constitution, Appendix. Consult also the Bill of Rights in the constitution of your state.] From the beginning of our national history a fundamental principle of American government has been to allow the individual as much freedom of thought and action as is compatible with the general welfare.
36. CONTROL BY THE PEOPLE.—Under American constitutional government, sovereignty resides with the people as a whole, though the people act through their chosen representatives. There is no power in American government beyond that created or permitted by the people themselves. The suffrage, so narrowly restricted in the eighteenth century, has since widened to include the great majority of adults, both male and female. Elections are frequent, so that ill-chosen officials may not long abuse their position. The Initiative, the Referendum and the Recall are methods of popular control which in many sections are spreading. Constitutional amendment in the United States is not easy; on the other hand, if any considerable percentage of the voters evince a sustained desire for change, an amendment is the normal result. [Footnote: In Part IV of the text we shall consider the dangers of an over-extension of popular control; here it is only necessary to point out that American government is essentially government by the people.]
37. EFFICIENCY.—The division of functions between the Federal and state governments on the one hand, and between state and local governments on the other, provides a solid foundation for the economical administration of government.
The Federal government attends to most matters which are of national importance, and which cannot properly be looked after by the states individually. For example, foreign relations, the postal service, and the coinage of money, are Federal functions. The separation of Federal and state functions is not always clear, but such matters as contracts, property rights, crime, and education are probably best administered by the state. There is, similarly, no sharp dividing line between the functions of state and local governments, but at present it appears that the local authorities are the most efficient administrators of roads and bridges, water and paving, the elementary schools, and similar concerns.
The essential economy of this threefold division of functions is that each of the three sets of officials tends to concern itself with those matters with which it is best acquainted, and which are most advantageously administered by it.
38. UNITY.—The earlier European critics of our government declared that the division of powers between Federal and state governments would encourage civil strife. It is true that this division of powers has resulted in a decentralized rather than in a centralized form of government. It is equally true that the quarrel over states' rights was the fundamental cause of the Civil War. But that war settled the question of states' rights once and for all, and there has never again been any serious question as to the proper status of states and Union. American democracy has been found compatible with unity.
Nor has the decentralized character of American government kept us from presenting a united front in foreign wars. The concentration of war powers in the hands of President Lincoln during the Civil War was matched by the temporary dictatorship wielded by President Wilson during the World War. In both cases, the national executive became, for the period of the emergency, as powerful and as efficient as the executive of a highly centralized monarchy. This ability to exhibit unity of control and singleness of purpose in war-time enables us to claim for our form of government one of the most important assets of the centralized monarchy.
39. THE SPIRIT OF PROGRESS.—Certainly one test of good government is the extent to which it renders the masses of the people happy and prosperous. American government has not yet exhausted the possibilities of helpfulness, but one of the chief aims of our political system is to encourage the individual in every pursuit which is legal and honorable. Lord Bryce has called America the land of Hope, because in spite of the defects of American government, a feeling of buoyancy and optimism is characteristic of our political institutions. America might also be called the land of Sane Endeavor, for we lend force and justification to our optimism by consistently working for the attainment of our ideals. To improve every condition of American life, and yet to work in harmony with the principles of constitutional government, that is our ideal. Progress must come through authorized channels, for, as Abraham Lincoln has said, "a majority, held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing with the deliberate changes of popular opinion and sentiment, is the only true sovereign of a free people, and whoever rejects it does of necessity fly to anarchy or despotism."
1. Upon what does the fate of a democracy depend?
2. Contrast the strength of our present government with the strength of the government established by the Articles of Confederation.
3. What is the check and balance system? Explain clearly.
4. Show how the check and balance system renders American government stable.
5. Why is stability not a feature of some of the Latin-American republics which have adapted our check and balance system?
6. What can be said as to the rights of the individual under American constitutional government?
7. To what extent is American government subject to popular control?
8. How does American government provide for a solid foundation for the economical administration of government?
9. What charge did the earlier European critics bring against American government? Has history substantiated or disproved this charge? Explain.
10. Compare the American democracy with a monarchy with respect to efficiency in war-time.
11. Why may America be called the land of Hope? To what extent may it properly be called the land of Sane Endeavor?
12. What did Lincoln say as to the only true sovereign of a free people?
1. Williamson,Readings in American Democracy, chapter iv.
Or all of the following:
2. Beard,American Government and Politics, chapter viii.
3. Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol. ii, chapters c and cii.
4. Cleveland and Schafer,Democracy in Reconstruction, pages 48-66.
5. Root,Addresses on Government and Citizenship, pages 98-117.
1. What is meant by the doctrine of limited government? (Beard, pages 145-147.)
2. What are the two classes of constitutional limitations upon the Federal government? (Beard, pages 147-148.)
3. Describe the position of the judiciary in American government. (Beard, pages 164-165.)
4. What was the attitude of the republics of Greece and Rome toward the individual? (Root, page 98.)
5. Contrast this attitude with the "Anglo-Saxon idea." (Root, pages 98-99.)
6. Why is it important that a constitution be a written document? (Cleveland and Schafer, pages 54-S5.)
7. Why is it dangerous to suspend the constitutional guarantees of personal liberty? (Root, pages 114-115.)
8. What faults have philosophers and popular writers generally attributed to democratic governments? (Bryce, pages 613-614.)
9. To what extent are these faults attributable to American democracy? (Bryce, pages 614-629.)
10. Explain the capacity of our government to develop great vigor. (Bryce, pages 650-652.)
1. Make a study of a club or society of which you are a member, or with which you are familiar. To what extent does its organization illustrate the check and balance system?
2. Classify local or state officials in your commonwealth, in order to show differences in term and differences in the method of choosing them. To what extent do these differences constitute a check and balance system?
3. Make a list of the guarantees of personal liberty which are contained in the constitution of your state. Compare this list with similar lists made from the constitutions of other states. Compare the list with the first ten Amendments to the Federal Constitution.
4. Methods by which the constitution of your state may be amended.
5. Make a list of the chief public activities in your community or section. Which are local, which state, and which Federal? Do you believe that any of these functions could be more advantageously performed by some other division of government than that which is now performing it? Give reasons.
6. "Why democracy is best." (Tufts,The Real Business of Living, chapter xxxvii.)
7. Philosophy of the American constitutional system. (Beard,Readings in American Government and Politics, pages 49-53.)
8. The relation of Federal and state governments in the United States. (Guitteau,Government and Politics in the United States, chapter xxi.)
9. Framework of American government. (Bryce,Modern Democraciesvol. ii, chapter xxxix.)
10. The check and balance system. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, chapter lxiii. See also any standard text on American government.)
11. The theory of the separation of powers. (Beard,Readings in American Government and Politics, pages 138-140.)
12. The supremacy of Federal law. (Beard,Readings in American Government and Politics, pages 140-143.)
13. The meaning of liberty. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. i, chapter vi.)
14. The meaning of equality. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. i, chapter vii.)
15. A brief comparison of the American and European systems of government. (Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol i, chapter xxv.)
16. American democracy contrasted with other democratic governments. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, pages 446-452.)
17. Democracy compared with undemocratic forms of government. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, chapter lxxiv.)
18. Efficiency of American democracy in the World War. (West,The War and the New Age, chapter x.)
40. NO GOVERNMENT IS PERFECT.—All government is a compromise, in that it is adopted or created for the purpose of harmonizing the interests of the individual with the interests of the group. The types of government are numerous, varying with the character of the group, and with the particular conditions under which it exists. But we know of no government which is perfect: all have shortcomings, some very serious, others less so. There is nothing to be gained, therefore, by debating whether or not American government is imperfect. A much more profitable question is this: What are the faults of American democracy, and how may they be eliminated or minimized? The most constructive work which the American citizen is called upon to do is to grasp the character of the problems confronting his country, and then to attempt their solution.
41. THE WIDENING CIRCLE OF PROBLEMS.—The last two centuries have constituted an age of rapid change and development in all of the major phases of civilization. There have been rapid shifts in population, particularly in the younger countries of the world. Important discoveries have greatly increased our knowledge of natural science; epoch-making inventions have revolutionized manufacturing, commerce and transportation. In every civilized land there have been readjustments of political beliefs, as well as important changes in intellectual, religious, and social standards. Such an age is peculiarly an age of problems: it is a period of change and stress, a time of readjustment, of adaptation to changed conditions, of growth, and of development.
We in America are confronted by an ever widening circle of problems, and this chiefly for two reasons. In the first place, we have felt the impact of those forces which for the last two centuries have been creating problems the world over. In the second place, the whole period of our national development has fallen within this age of change and readjustment This means that we have had to grapple with the problems common to all modern countries during a period in which the origin and development of American democracy have been creating purely domestic problems. These facts at least partially explain the growing importance of the problems of American democracy during the past century.
42. EFFECT OF AN ENLARGED SOCIAL CONSCIENCE.—Many of the issues of contemporary American life have come into prominence because we have enlarged the concept of democracy within the last century. The term democracy has come to imply, not merely a form of government, but actually a philosophy of life stressing justice and happiness for the individual, whether in his political, social, or economic capacity. The more humanitarian our view, the more situations calling for remedy fall within it. Child labor, to give a single example, was not generally considered an evil a century ago, but to-day an enlarged social conscience condemns it.
43. NECESSITY OF AVOIDING PATERNALISM.—The solution of many national problems implies an extension of government control. Now, it is not generally appreciated that while an enlarged social conscience has increased the number of our problems, the individualistic strain in the American nature resists that paternalism which at present appears necessary to an effective treatment of certain problems. We are behind Germany in legislation designed to prevent industrial accidents, lessen the evils of unemployment, and otherwise protect the worker against the risks of industry. But Germany has built up this system of social insurance by restricting personal liberty, and by greatly extending the power of government over the individual. The great task confronting our government is to do as much for the individual as any paternalistic government, without endangering his rights by an undue extension of governmental control.
44. THE COMPLEXITY OF OUR PROBLEMS.—The mistake is sometimes made of thinking that national issues can be nicely defined, and separated from one another. The human mind has its limitations, and we are prone to emphasize the outline and content of particular problems in order to perceive their essential character the more clearly. But though this is permissible for purposes of study, we must bear in mind that the questions which we are to discuss are connected with one another in a most baffling way. To understand the administration of charity, for example, we ought to know the social, economic, and political background of the community under observation. The thorough study of this background would lead us to crime, education and other problems, which in turn have their connections with issues still further removed from the immediate problem of charity. The thorough understanding of a specific question thus implies consideration of many inter-related questions. Likewise, the solution of a particular question affects and is affected by the whole mass of related phenomena.
45. IMPORTANCE OF THE ECONOMIC BACKGROUND.—It would be unwise, perhaps, to claim that any definite group of problems is of greater importance than any other group. But at least we may say that some problems are primary in origin, while others appear to be secondary,i.e.derived from those called primary. In the chapters which follow, the attempt has been made to arrange the groups of problems with some regard to their primary or secondary origin. Probably the most fundamental problems which face us to-day are those of economic organization. Properly to understand these problems the student must first grasp the essential facts of American industry. We shall begin our study of the problems of American democracy, therefore, with a survey of the economic life of the nation. Only after we have mastered the principles upon which American industry is based, shall we be in a position to solve the problems which arise directly from the nature of our economic organization.
46. INDUSTRIAL REFORM.—Our industrial life is so clearly based upon certain fundamental institutions, such as private property, free contract, and free competition, that an industrial "system" is said to exist. Certain great evils, notably poverty, have accompanied the development of this system. We shall discuss a number of programs designed to eliminate these evils. The doctrine of single tax is of interest as advocating the abolition or confiscation of land value. The co÷perative conduct of industry is of increasing importance of late years. We must also reckon with socialism as a movement which seeks the redistribution of wealth. Under the general head of socialism we shall have occasion to notice a small but active group known as the Industrial Workers of the World, and the larger, though related, group which recently conducted a socialist experiment in Russia. The discussion of socialism completed, we shall sum up the attitude of American democracy toward the whole problem of industrial reform.
47. SOCIAL PROBLEMS.—Of the social problems which grow out of a bad economic situation, none is more vital than the fostering of peace and good will between labor and capital. Following the discussion of industrial relations, we shall have occasion to notice a whole series of social questions which have either been derived from, or accentuated by, the rapid industrialization of our country. Grave questions arise in connection with immigration, health, and the cityward drift. The consideration of the problems of the city in turn directs attention to the necessity of a normal rural life, and to the importance of safeguarding the American home. Dependency is a familiar problem, but one which, in the light of an awakened community spirit, is now being studied from new and interesting angles. Last among social problems is the fundamental matter of education. It is not too much to claim that the ultimate fate of American democracy depends, to a great extent, upon the vigor and intelligence with which we improve and extend our educational system.
48. RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO BUSINESS.—Since our material well-being rests upon an economic basis, the public has a vital interest in business. The rise of great corporations and the necessity of safeguarding the public from monopolistic abuses make necessary a careful examination into the relation of government to business. We shall meet with this question: Shall the government regulate, or actually own, businesses of vital importance to the public? Equally knotty, but fully as interesting, is the tariff question. Should Congress tax foreign goods entering this country, and, if so, upon what principles should this tax be determined? This will bring us to the general problem of taxation, a subject to which the American people will probably devote an increasing amount of attention in the next few decades. The question of conserving our natural resources must also be discussed. Last in this group of problems may be mentioned the question of money and banking. In discussing this important subject we shall notice, among other things, the interesting Federal reserve system, which, it is hoped, will protect us from panics in the future.
49. PROBLEMS IN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENT.—The economist has good reason for declaring that the getting of a living is one of the most fundamental concerns in life; on the other hand, no people can long get a comfortable living without the aid of a helpful system of government. Government must be made effective. This introduces us to another series of problems. First of all, who shall share in government? And how may we improve the methods by which we select the agents of government? How may corruption and inefficiency be eliminated from American government? What is the significance of the Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall?
These questions must prove of fascinating interest to those who think of democracy as a living institution which is constantly growing, developing, adapting itself to changed conditions.
50. WHAT IS THE PROMISE OF AMERICAN LIFE?—Rich in natural resources, ample in extent, encouraging to man's helpful efforts, America fulfills the first condition of national greatness. Intelligent and industrious, law-abiding and, devoted to the building of homes, our population fulfills the second condition.
Here we have all the raw materials out of which to build a great nation. Already we have made marked contributions to civilization, and yet it should not be forgotten that our chief claim to national greatness rests upon the promise which we show of being able to perfect American democracy.
To what extent will this promise actually be realized? As a nation we are yet young, as a people we have scarcely begun the greatest experiment in democracy which the world has ever seen. Shall we endure, shall we attain to a half-success, shall we succeed gloriously?
Much depends upon the extent to which each of us assumes the responsibilities of citizenship. Those who have gone before us conquered a wilderness, expanded and preserved the Union. But it is not for us complacently to accept the result. Much has been done, but much more remains to be done. Our goal is the greatest possible perfection of our economic, social and political life. Each age may be said to have its peculiar burdens and responsibilities: the prime task of the colonist was to foster the tender shoot of democracy; that of the western pioneer was to fashion homes out of a wilderness; the burden of our generation is to grapple with the present-day problems of American democracy. Without a high sense of personal responsibility, coupled with an intelligent and consistent effort, we can never reach the high goal admittedly possible.
51. THE POINT OF VIEW IN PROBLEM STUDY.—To see American democracy and to see it as a whole should be our aim throughout the remainder of this book. Now this is not easy. The danger is that the unwary student will interpret the large amount of space devoted to "problems" as meaning that American life is preeminently unsettled and defective. This is a temptation to be guarded against. Though we shall uncover many defects, it should be remembered that we are predominantly a normal, healthy, prosperous people. But our virtues demand our attention less urgently than do our defects. If we seem to be overconcerned with the defects of American life, the student should not conclude that American life is primarily defective. Rather, he ought to realize that it is precisely because a situation involves a problem that our attention is challenged.
Nor should problems be looked upon as something to be ashamed of. Where life is dull and civilization static, there are relatively few problems; where life is progressive and civilization steadily advancing, problems are numerous and pressing. Problems imply adjustment, development, the desire for improvement and advancement. They are signs of progress, the growing pains of civilization. If we bear this in mind, we shall be in a fair position to see American democracy in true perspective, without undue distortion of our viewpoint, and without prejudice to our judgment.
1. Why is there nothing to be gained by debating whether or not American democracy is imperfect?
2. Why has the circle of our problems been steadily widening during the last century?
3. Trace the relation between an enlarged social conscience and the number of problems confronting us.
4. What is one danger of paternalism?
5. Give a definite example to illustrate the complexity of our modern problems.
6. Discuss the importance of the economic background in problem study.
7. What problems may be included under the term "industrial reform"?
8. What problems arise in connection with public interest in business?
9. Name some of the problems arising in connection with the need for effective government.
10. What is the importance of individual responsibility in studying the problems of American democracy?
11. Outline clearly the point of view to be maintained in studying these problems.
1. Williamson,Readings in American Democracy, chapter v.
Or all of the following:
2. Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol. ii, chapters ci, cxiv, cxix, and cxxii.
3. Dunn,The Community and the Citizen, pages vii-xii.
4. McLaughlin,Steps in the Development of American Democracy, chapter viii.
1. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the essential intellectual traits of the masses of the American people? (Bryce, pages 825-826.)
2. Lord Bryce says that "there are elements in the life of the United States which may well make a European of any class prefer to dwell there rather than in the land of his birth." What are these elements? (Bryce, pages 870-873.)
3. What comment does Lord Bryce make upon the quality of humor in the American character? (Bryce, page 876.)
4. What three advantages does the United States have over European countries in the matter of grappling with modern problems? (Bryce, page 912.)
5. Explain the statement that "Democracy rests on faith." (McLaughlin, pages 181-182.)
6. What is meant by the statement that "Democracy is fundamentally a matter of human relationships"? (McLaughlin, pages 189-190.)
7. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the four chief defects of American democracy? (Bryce, page 632.)
8. What are the essential qualities which civic education should aim to cultivate? (Dunn, pages xi-xii.)
1. Make a list of the problems which in any way affect you as a citizen in the community. List these problems in the order in which they occur to you, or are discovered by you. Comment upon the confused and disorderly appearance of the problems so listed.
2. Classify the problems on your list according as they are economic, social or political.
3. Classify the problems on your list according as they are local, state or national.
4. Comment upon the complexity and inter-relationship of the problems so classified.
5. What agencies, public, semi-public, or private, are studying the problems on your list?
6. What difference of interest do the citizens of your community show in local, state and national problems?
7. Defects of democratic government the world over. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, pages 452-454.)
8. The background of the problems of American democracy. (Merriam,American Political Ideas, chapter i.)
9. The hindrances to good citizenship. (Bryce,Hindrances to Good Citizenship.)
10. The promise of American life. (Croly,The Promise of American Life,chapter i.)
11. Attitude of the individual in a democracy. (Hughes,Conditions of Progress in Democratic Government.)
12. The power of ideals in American history. (Adams,The Power of Ideals in American History.)
13. Ideals of citizenship. (Woodburn and Moran,The Citizen and the Republic, chapter xx.)
14. The future of democracy. (Bryce,Modern Democracies, vol. ii, chapter lxxx.)
52. MAGNITUDE OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY.—In colonial times the major part of American industry was concentrated along the Atlantic seaboard; to- day it extends over a large part of the continent. A century and a half ago our industrial system was still a relatively simple one, giving rise to few pressing problems of national importance; at the present time it is a vast and complicated affair, closely bound up with many of the most vital problems which confront American democracy. The activities which are commonly grouped under the head of "American industry" are so numerous and so varied that a description of all of them would carry us beyond the limits of this chapter. Nevertheless, it is important that we secure some understanding of these activities. A few pages may profitably be spent, therefore, in discussing certain basic facts of American industry.
53. FAVORABLE LOCATION OF THE UNITED STATES.—Let us commence by noting that the location of the United States is favorable to the development of industry. Of the two American continents, the northern has the greater natural advantages. Each continent is roughly in the form of a triangle with the apex or smaller end pointing southward, but whereas the larger end of the South American triangle is within the tropic zone and only the tapering end is within the more favorable temperate zone, the greater part of the North American triangle is within the temperate zone. With regard to location for world trade the northern continent again has the advantage: the ports of South America face a relatively empty ocean on the west and the little-developed continent of Africa on the east; the ports of North America, in addition to being more numerous and more suitable for commerce than those of the southern continent, face the teeming Orient on the west, and the great markets of Europe on the east. Moreover, the United States occupies the choicest portions of the North American continent. Our neighbor Canada has a cold and snow-bound frontier on her north, while on our south Mexico and the Central American countries lie near the tropics. The heart of temperate America, on the other hand, is included within the territory of the United States.
54. POPULATION.—Scarcely less important than the favorable location of the United States is the character of the people occupying the country. From less than four million in 1790, our population has increased so rapidly that in 1920 there were 105,710,620 people within the bounds of continental United States. As the population has increased, it has spread over the Appalachians, into the great Mississippi basin, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. Accompanying the increase and westward spread of the population has come a greater variety of racial types. Although our population was varied in colonial times, the great majority of the settlers were from the British Isles and northwestern Europe. In the latter part of the nineteenth century immigration from northern Europe declined and more and more immigrants began to come from southern and southeastern Europe. So universal has been the attraction of America, that our present population includes elements from every important country in the world. From the industrial standpoint, the dominant Characteristics of this composite American people are energy and versatility.
55. NATIONAL WEALTH.—Generations of industrious people have helped to make the United States the wealthiest nation in the world. It has been estimated that in 1850 our national wealth amounted to $8,000,000,000. By 1900 the remarkable progress of American industry had increased this figure to more than $88,000,000,000. In 1912 our wealth was probably in excess of $180,000,000,000. Industrial and financial disturbances during the period of the World War make later estimates hazardous, nevertheless it is interesting to note that in 1921 the wealth of the United States was estimated as being between $350,000,000,000 and $400,000,000,000. According to this estimate, the wealth of this country exceeded, in 1921, the combined wealth of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Belgium. In weighing the value of this comparison, however, we must take into consideration the heavy destruction of wealth in western Europe because of the World War.
56. WHAT THE AMERICAN PEOPLE ARE DOING.—A large percentage of the inhabitants of the United States are engaged in some form of productive work. According to the most recent estimates there are approximately fifty million persons, male and female, over ten years of age, engaged in gainful occupations in this country. Of these about fourteen million are engaged in agriculture and allied industries, while more than eleven million are busy in manufacturing pursuits. Almost four million are found in some form of trade, and another four million are employed in domestic and personal service. Transportation, clerical work, and professional callings utilize the services of several additional million. The great majority of those employed in American industry are men, although the number of women in industry is steadily increasing. Children have been found in industrial pursuits since colonial times, but of recent years there is a growing movement to restrict or prohibit the employment of children in gainful occupations.
57. FORESTS AND MINERALS.—The natural resources of the United States play a large part in our industrial life. One fourth of the territory of the United States is still covered with timber. We are abundantly supplied with coal and iron, the two most important industrial minerals. Our coal deposits outrank, both in quantity and in quality, those of any other country. Iron is found in most of the states in the Union, the high-grade deposits of the Lake Superior area being of special importance. We produce more than half of the world's supply of copper, which, after coal and iron, is the most important industrial mineral. Our supply of petroleum and natural gas is large, and in spite of the waste which has characterized our use of these important commodities, our production of both is still great. Gold, silver, zinc, lead and phosphates are produced in the United States in large quantities. Indeed, we have ample supplies of practically all of the minerals of importance to industry, except platinum, tin, and nickel.
58. AGRICULTURE.—Until very recently, at least, agriculture has been by far our most important industry. Of the two billion acres comprising continental United States, approximately half are under cultivation. In most sections of the country the quality of the soil is good, and rainfall is ample. We have long led the world in the value of farm crops grown. Our production of wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye, and dairy products totals an enormous figure. The steady enclosure of lands formerly used for grazing stock is restricting our production of food animals, but we are still important as a producer of meats. Most of the world's tobacco is grown in this country. The world's supply of cotton is derived mainly from southern United States. Finally, our soil is of such variety, and our climate so diversified, that the danger of a general crop failure is slight. A loss in one part of the country is almost certain to be offset by good crops in another.
59. MANUFACTURING.—In colonial times American manufactures were subjected to more or less restraint by Great Britain, but after the Revolution these industries entered upon a period of free and rapid development. Modern machinery was introduced rapidly after 1800, large scale production was developed, transportation was fostered, and larger and larger markets were supplied with the products of American manufacturers. Particularly since the Civil War has the importance of our manufactures increased. This increase has been due chiefly to the large scale production of foodstuffs, including meats and flour; textiles; iron and steel products; shoes; chemicals; and agricultural machinery. According to recent census figures it would appear that we are passing from a predominantly agricultural life to a stage in which manufacturing is of relatively greater importance.
60. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION.—The physical geography of the United States encourages the development of adequate means of transportation and communication. The St. Lawrence-Great Lakes system gives easy access to the most fertile section of the continent. The Mississippi and its tributaries drain a million square miles of farm land. We have, in addition to 18,000 miles of navigable rivers, a greater coast line available for commerce than has the whole of Europe. New York is the world's greatest seaport.
Few mountain ranges hamper the development of transcontinental railroads in this country, and of these only one, the Rockies, is a serious obstacle to effective transportation. Our railroad mileage is enormous, a half dozen transcontinental lines being supplemented by numerous smaller roads and feeding lines. We have more than 2000 miles of canals in operation. Cheap and rapid transportation between the different parts of the country, supplemented by adequate means of communication by telephone, telegraph, and the postal service, undoubtedly has been one of the greatest factors in our national prosperity.
61. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN TRADE.—The great majority of our products are not shipped to foreign markets, but are utilized within the country. We are still so young and so undeveloped a country that our manufacturers have been kept busy supplying the domestic market. This fact, together with the American manufacturer's lack of knowledge concerning the possibilities of foreign trade, explains our neglect of foreign markets. In proportion as our manufacturers catch up with the domestic market, and in proportion as their knowledge of foreign markets increases, it is likely that they will give more and more attention to customers in other countries.
But though a very small proportion of our products are sent abroad, the foreign trade of the United States exceeds in value the foreign trade of any other country. This predominance is due, not so much to our search for foreign markets, as to the steady demand in other countries for three classes of goods in the production of which we have a distinct advantage. These three classes of goods are, first, raw materials of which we have a great abundance, such as cotton and copper; second, specialties invented and patented by Americans, such as inexpensive automobiles, typewriters, and phonographs; and, third, commodities which may be advantageously produced by large-scale methods, such as agricultural machinery and the cheaper grades of textiles.
62. SUMMARY AND FORECAST.—We have very briefly surveyed some of the basic facts of American industry. On the one hand, the favorable location and the rich natural resources of the United States have furnished a substantial basis for industrial progress. On the other hand, we must note that the American people are energetic and versatile,—combining, to a happy degree, the qualities of initiative and originality, perseverance and adaptability. The great wealth and prosperity of the country as a whole have been the result of the combination of a favorable land and an able people.
This is not the whole of the story, of course. It must be admitted that, with all of our wealth, we continue to face serious charges of poverty and industrial maladjustment. These charges are of great importance, but it should be remembered that no problem can be solved, or even intelligently attacked, until the essential facts are well in hand. We have briefly described the nature of American industry. What we have now to do, as a preliminary to considering the problem of poverty and industrial reform, is to analyze the economic laws in accordance with which American industry has developed. The essential facts of the next four chapters cannot be weighed too carefully.
1. To what extent has the character of American industry changed in the last century and a half?
2. Compare North America with South America with respect to natural advantages.
3. Outline the changes which have occurred in the population of the United States since 1790.
4. Trace briefly the increase in our national wealth since 1850.
5. What are the chief occupations of the American people?
6. Name three important industrial minerals, and comment on our supply of each.
7. What are the chief characteristics of American agriculture?
8. Outline the growth of our manufacturing industries.
9. How are transportation and communication encouraged by the physical geography of the United States?
10. Why is our domestic trade of relatively greater importance than our foreign trade?
11. To what three types of goods is our predominance in foreign markets due?
12. What qualities of the American people have contributed to their industrial success?
1. Williamson,Readings in American Democracy,chapter vi.
Or all of the following:
2. Bishop and Keller,Industry and Trade,chapters i and ii.
3. Bogart,Economic History of the United States,chapter i.
4. Fetter,Modern Economic Problems,chapter i.
5. King,Wealth and Income of the People of the United States,chapter iii.
1. Describe briefly each of the six regions into which continental United States may be divided. (Bogart, pages 11-12.)
2. Why has the animal life of the North American continent declined in significance since colonial times? (Bogart, page 8.)
3. Into what five divisions may the forests of the United States be classified? (Bishop and Keller, pages 27-28.)
4. What may be said as to the temperature of the United States? (Bogart, pages 12-13.)
5. What may be said as to the extent of rainfall in the United States? (Bogart, page 13.)
6. Explain the importance of water power in the United States. (Bogart, pages 3-4.)
7. What changes in farm land values have been brought about in the last century? (King, pages 22-27.)
8. Discuss the value of urban land in the United States. (King, pages 15-21.)
9. Why is it extremely difficult to measure the wealth of the United States? (Fetter, pages 6-10.)
1. Trace the growth in the population of your state since 1880. What have been the chief sources of this increase?
2. To what extent has the population of your state been affected by immigration from Europe? What attracts immigrants to your state? Have there been any changes in the character of this immigration since 1880?
3. Classify the population of your state on the basis of occupation. (Secure data from the State Board of Labor, or State Bureau of Statistics.)
4. Estimate the material wealth of your community. What light does the result throw upon the difficulties of summarizing the wealth of the nation?
5. Discuss the importance in the economic life of your section of
(a) Agriculture,
(b) Mining,
(c) Forestry,
(d) Manufacturing.
6. The economic geography of your section. (Consult Dryer,Elementary Economic Geography.)
7. A comparison of America three hundred years ago with the America of to-day. (Price,The Land We Live In, chapters i and ii.)
8. Character of the American population. (Burch and Patterson,American Social Problems, chapter ix.)
9. An analysis of the American character. (Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol. ii, chapters cxiv and cxv.)
10. Ways of getting a living. (Carver,Elementary Economics, chapter xv.)
11. Geographical distribution of cities and industries in the United States. (Semple,American History and Its Geographic Conditions,chapter xvi.)
12. Agricultural industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,Industry and Trade,part ii. Smith,Commerce and Industry,chapters i, in, iv, v, and vi.)
13. Animal industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,Industry and Trade,part iii. Smith,Commerce and Industry, chapter ii.)
14. Power. (Smith,Commerce and Industry, chapter ix.)
15. Mineral industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller, Industry and Trade, part iv. Smith,Commerce and Industry, chapters viii, xiii, xiv, and xv.)
16. Manufacturing industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,Industry and Trade, part v.)
17. Trade routes of North America. (Smith,Commerce and Industry, chapter xvi.)
18. The foreign trade of the United States. (Dryer,Elementary Economic Geography, chapter xxxii. See also any other recently published text on this general field.)
63. WHY MEN WORK.—Ultimately everyone depends upon work for his living. Young children commonly live upon the earnings of their parents; most normal adults, on the other hand, depend upon their own efforts for their living. Since every individual probably works because of a combination of motives, it is possible somewhat to analyze the reasons why men work. The most fundamental reason for working is in order to preserve one's life. This assured, the individual is in a position to work in order to preserve the lives of those who are near and dear to him. When the necessities of life have been provided, work is commonly continued for the sake of acquiring comforts or luxuries.
Under a well-regulated legal system these efforts of the individual also benefit the community, but until he is able to support himself and his family, the average individual does not consciously make the public interest the chief end of his labors. However altruistic a man may be, he will not be able to labor consistently in behalf of others, unless he will thereby serve his own interests as well, or unless his personal needs have already been met.
64. THE OLD WAY OF GETTING A LIVING.—The economic history of eighteenth century England illustrates two rather distinct methods of getting a living, one of which may be called the old, and the other the new. Up to about the middle of the century, the masses of Englishmen, in common with the people of other countries, got a very poor living. Most common necessities were made in the home and for purely family use. Shoes, clothing, tools, and similar articles were produced laboriously and on a small scale. In comparison with industrial conditions in the nineteenth century, there was at that time little industrial co÷peration [Footnote: By co÷peration is here meant simply the working together of different persons or groups of persons. Co÷peration in this sense is to be distinguished from co÷peration as discussed in Chapter XII.], little division of labor, little suspicion that men were, in spite of hard work engaged in for long hours, getting a very poor living. The trouble was, partly, that men had not yet fully realized the possibilities of helping one another, and partly that they were ignorant of how to make Nature really an efficient aid in getting them a living.
65. THE NEW WAY OF GETTING A LIVING.—After the middle of the eighteenth century the invention of a series of remarkable machines enabled Englishmen greatly to increase their productivity, first in the manufacture of textiles, and later in numerous other industries. By subdividing their labor more and more minutely, and by each specializing in the particular type of work which he could do best, men found that their total output could be greatly increased. This complex division of labor, made possible by the use of water and steam power to run machines and to move vehicles of transportation, reduced the difficulty of getting a good living, that it constituted a veritable revolution in industry. Indeed, this change is known in history as the Industrial Revolution.
66. EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.—In the last century and a half the Industrial Revolution has spread to every important civilized country in the world, everywhere encouraging the application of machine methods to more and more industries. This change from production on a small scale, and often by hand, to large-scale production in factories equipped with complex machines, has had important results. It has so increased our control over Nature that even the humblest workman of to-day enjoys many comforts denied kings a few centuries ago. On the other hand, the Industrial Revolution has tended to create a numerous class which depends entirely upon wages, and to set off against this class an employing group which possesses and controls most of the income-producing equipment of industry. The significance of this last development will become clearer as we go along.
67. NATURE OF MODERN PRODUCTION.—In the study of modern production two fundamental facts confront us. The first is that the economist does not define production as merely the making of material objects. We desire material objects only if they will satisfy our wants. Since, also, the satisfaction of wants is the important thing, it is clear that the performance of a service, such as teaching or painting, may be more important than the manufacture of a material object which no one wants. Production may thus be defined as the satisfaction of human wants. The manufacturer of a material object is productive only if that object is wanted by someone; he who supplies personal or professional service is productive if that service satisfies the wants of someone.
The second fundamental fact which confronts the student of modern production is the complexity of our industrial system. Three hundred years ago most of the commodities in daily use were made, either in the home and by the family members, or by small groups of artisans working together under relatively simple conditions. To-day production is a vast and complicated process. To the eye of the untrained observer a great mass of factories, farms, railroads, mills, machines, ships, and busy laborers appears without order and, often, without purpose. The task immediately before us is to analyze this mass, and to point out the nature of the various factors which contribute to the productive power of a community.
68. NATURE A FIRST FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.—Nature is defined by the economist as inclusive of all of the materials and forces furnished in the form of land and its products, oceans, lakes, rivers, rain, humidity, and climate. Since Nature is rather a vague term, and since, also, the economist looks upon land as the most important element in Nature, we may lump together all of the materials and forces of Nature and apply the term "land."
Taken in this sense, land is clearly of great importance in production. We build houses and factories upon it, we use it as a basis of transportation, we harness its motive power, and we make extensive use of the innumerable raw materials which it furnishes. Without land there could be no production, in the sense in which the economist understands the word.
69. MAN'S LABOR A SECOND FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.—Something besides land, or Nature, is necessary before our wants can be satisfied. Nature is often careless of our needs and desires. True, she offers us berries, coal, firewood, and many other commodities which are practically ready to use, but even these articles will not satisfy our wants unless we go to the trouble to secure possession of them. In an important sense Nature is passive, and if she is to furnish us with a living, we must engage in labor. This labor may be mental or physical, the important point being that it is effort undertaken to increase our control over Nature. Savages are content to use products in substantially the form in which Nature provides them; civilized peoples work over the products of Nature until the utility or want- satisfying power of those products has been greatly increased. Man's living improves as he progresses from indolence to hard physical labor, then from hard physical labor alone to a combination of physical and mental labor intelligently directed.
70. CAPITAL A THIRD FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.—Land to furnish raw materials, and man to make use of those materials,—what more is necessary? Nothing else would be necessary if all of Nature's gifts were readily accessible, and if man unaided could make the best use of them. But Nature hides or disguises many of her treasures, and man is physically weak. Hence he has hit upon the device of making tools to help him in his contest with Nature. During the period of the Industrial Revolution many simple tools were supplanted by complicated devices run by power and called engines and machines. To the economist tools and similar devices are a form of capital, capital being defined as inclusive of everything which man has created, or caused to be created, in order to help in further production. [Footnote: Land has not been created by man but is a gift of Nature. Land, therefore, is not a form of capital.]
The fashioning of hammers and saws, the construction of railways, and the manufacture of machinery, all these operations create capital. The systematic creation and use of capital is one of the distinguishing features of modern civilization. The laborer alone can produce little; aided by capital he can produce much. Capital is not important if one is willing to live like a savage; on the other hand, it is indispensable if one wishes to enjoy the benefits of civilization.
71. COÍRDINATION A FOURTH FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.—Land, labor, and capital are factors in production. Two hundred years ago nothing else was essential to production. The average individual had his own land, produced his own tools or capital, and relied chiefly or entirely upon his own labor.
But the Industrial Revolution enlarged and complicated production. It created an industrial system in which the individual is generally a specialist, producing a surplus of his one product, but dependent upon numerous other persons for most of the things which he personally consumes. To-day, for example, there are numerous individuals raising cattle, the hides of which are to be made into shoes; other individuals are perfecting means of transportation so that those hides may be carried to market; still other persons concern themselves only with the building of factories or with the manufacture of machines with which to work those hides into shoes. These various individuals and groups may never see each other, nevertheless they aid one another.
The secret of this often unseen and unconscious co÷peration is that there are individuals who specialize in the work of connecting up, or co÷rdinating, the other factors which are necessary to the production of shoes. These individuals, about whom we shall have more to say in the next chapter, constitute an important economic group. They co÷rdinate, in the example given above, the cattle grower, the railroad manager, the tanner, the factory builder, and the manufacturer, and thus make possible a kind of national or even international co÷peration which would otherwise be impossible. Those whose function it is to promote this co÷peration are, therefore, indispensable factors in modern production.
72. GOVERNMENT A FIFTH FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.—A cursory examination of modern industry would convince the observer that land, labor, capital, and co÷rdination are important factors in production. There is, in addition, a factor which is so fundamental, and of such essential value, that it is sometimes overlooked altogether. This is the work of the government in protecting productive enterprises. Government aids in production by suppressing theft, violence, and fraud; by allowing individuals to engage in helpful businesses; by enforcing contracts entered into legally; and by punishing many kinds of monopolistic abuses. [Footnote: We shall take up the problem of monopoly in Chapters XXVII and XXVIII.] The whole fabric of American prosperity is built upon the foundation of law and order.