3. Characteristics of a good judge.
4. The actual conduct of a civil or criminal trial in a near-by court.
5. Delay in legal procedure in your state. (Consult a friendly attorney.)
6. Methods of removing judges in your state.
7. The evolution of state justice. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 384.)
8. Function of the state court. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 387.)
9. Methods of choosing judges in the various states. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 388.)
10. Procedure in the state courts. (Kimball,State and Municipal Government in the United States, chapter xv.)
11. The system of appeals in state courts. (Reinsch,Readings on American State Government, pages 150-158.)
12. Politics and the state courts. (Reinsch,Readings on American State Government, pages 158-168.)
13. Defects in the enforcement of law. (Reinsch,Readings on American State Government, pages 173-180.)
14. Relation of judicial inefficiency to crime. (Reinsch,Readings on American State Government, pages 181-198.)
15. Legal claims against the state. (Reinch,Readings on American State Government, pages 168-172.)
16. Necessity of judicial independence. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 391.)
17. The significance of lawyers in the United States. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 390.)
18. A summary of the defects of the State judiciary. (Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol. i, chapter xlii.)
19. Should a jury sitting in a criminal trial be required to render an unanimous verdict or simply a majority decision?
20. Should state judges be chosen directly by the people, or selected by the state legislature, or appointed by the Governor?
21. Should judges be subject to the Recall?
22. Should the entire civil law of your state be codified?
23. Advantages and disadvantages of separate administrative courts. (See Gettell,Readings in Political Science, pages 392-393.)
A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN MUNICIPALITY [Footnote: For an extendedaccount of American municipal development, see Fairlie'sMunicipalAdministration. An excellent summary of Fairlie is found inGuitteau'sGovernment and Politics in the United States, HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston, 1920.]
620. RAPID GROWTH OF AMERICAN CITIES.—A striking feature of American life is the rapidity with which our cities have grown. At the time of Washington's first inauguration, the United States were so predominantly rural that only about one thirtieth of our population was found in the cities. With the progress of the Industrial Revolution came an unprecedented development of transportation and the factory system. More and more people made their homes in the cities, until in 1890 approximately a third of the people of the United States were living in cities. According to the census of 1920 more than half of our population is concentrated in towns and cities.
621. THE AMERICAN CITY BEFORE THE REVOLUTION.—New York, now the largest American city, is also the oldest, having received its charter in 1686. Between that date and the outbreak of the Revolution, nineteen other municipalities received charters. The colonial cities modelled their organization after the English borough. Practically all authority was vested in a council, consisting of a mayor, recorder, aldermen, and councilmen, acting as a single body. The mayor was either appointed by the Governor, or elected by the council. The chief duty of the mayor was to preside over the council and execute its ordinances.
622. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1775-1825.—Several important changes in the character of the American city took place in the half century which followed the Declaration of Independence.
The power to grant charters to cities was transferred from the Governor to the state legislature. This was the natural outcome of an increasing suspicion of the executive authority, and a corresponding increase of faith in the state legislature. Before the end of this period the city came definitely under the control of the state legislature. In the absence of constitutional restrictions, the legislature has continued to exercise an almost dictatorial control over the cities within its borders.
Also typical of this period was the subordination of city affairs to state and national politics.
623. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1825-1850.—During this period a number of new cities sprang into prominence. Immigration was increasing, and the industrialization of the country was crowding the population into larger and larger units.
New York, Boston, St. Louis, and other cities adopted the two- chambered-council plan.
The passion for democratic control swept away the property qualifications prescribed by some of the early city charters, and practically attained universal manhood suffrage. The demand for popular control likewise led to the present practice of choosing the mayor by popular vote, the older methods of State appointment or council election being discarded.
624. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1850-1875.—Many pressing municipal problems appeared in this period. The functions of the American city became more numerous and more complex. Police and fire systems were installed; waterworks, sewer systems, and city parks were provided; education and charitable relief were developed.
Under the stress of administering these additional functions, cities applied more and more frequently to the state legislature for special legislation granting them additional powers. State legislatures tended to pass such special acts freely, with the result that corrupt and pernicious legislation became common in many states. Special interests engaged in lobbying, bribery, and log-rolling to secure special favors from legislatures. Public service corporations often secured valuable franchises on terms that did not adequately protect the public interest.
625. MUNICIPAL REFORM.—The period since 1875 and especially since 1900 has been marked by a strong tendency to reform municipal government.
The abuse of power by the city council in many instances forfeited the respect with which the public had formerly regarded that body. The power to appoint various city officials was transferred from the council to the voters, and many of the functions formerly exercised by the council were entrusted to newly created municipal boards.
In about half the states constitutional provisions now forbid the legislature to pass special acts concerning municipalities. In other states the constitution enumerates a large number of subjects with regard to which the legislature cannot enact special legislation. In some states the cities of the state are classified into two or more groups, according to population; the legislature is compelled to designate the group or groups to which statutes are to apply. In about a dozen states certain types of cities are allowed to frame and amend their own charters, provided that such acts are not inconsistent with the constitution and statutes of the state.
Municipal civil service reform is of increasing importance, more than 200 American cities having sanctioned it in some form. As applied to municipal affairs the merit system includes a municipal commission, appointed by the mayor; a system of competitive examinations designed to test character and capacity; a plan for requiring the appointing officer in each department of city government to select his subordinates from an eligible list; a method of removing officials; and sometimes a system of pensioning employees who have grown old in the service.
The movement for popular control has been closely associated with municipal development. The tendency to shorten the ballot, the holding of municipal elections at a different time than state and national elections, and the concentration of administrative officers under a responsible appointing head, are steps in this direction. In many states the Direct Primary has been intimately associated with municipal development. The Initiative, Referendum, and Recall have been adopted in a large number of cities, especially where the mayor- council plan has been abandoned for the commission form of government.
626. THE THREE TYPES OF CITY GOVERNMENT.—The three types of city government in the United States are the mayor-council plan, the commission plan, and the city manager plan. [Footnote: For a description of the commission and city manager plans of city government, see Chapter XXXVI.] The commission plan is a new form of city government which has been designed to overcome the defects of the old mayor-council plan, while the city manager plan is a modification of the commission plan. Of recent years both the commission plan and the city manager plan have spread rapidly, but it is still true that few American cities of any appreciable size have adopted either of these two plans. The old mayor-council plan prevails in most American cities, and for this reason the remainder of this chapter will be devoted to a description of this form of government.
627. THE CITY COUNCIL: ORGANIZATION.—Usually the city council is a single-chambered body, though some of the larger cities have from time to time experimented with a double-chambered council. In some cities councilmen are chosen on a general ticket, but in most cases the council consists of one member from each ward or district into which the city is divided. Councilmen must be voters in the city in which they serve, and by custom they are generally required to be residents of the ward from which they are chosen. The terms of councilmen vary from one to four years, two years being the average term. In the smaller cities councilmen are usually unpaid, but in the larger municipalities they receive a stated salary.
628. THE CITY COUNCIL: POWERS.—The typical American city is subservient to the state legislature, the powers of city government being enumerated in a charter received from the legislature. These enumerated powers have been rather narrowly interpreted by the courts.
The council enjoys a measure of police power, which it may invoke to protect the health and to further the well-being of the city's inhabitants. The exercise of this police power, however, must not conflict with state law.
The council has the power to levy taxes to defray expenses incurred in performing municipal functions. State constitutions and legislatures limit this power rather narrowly, however. Subject to a similar limitation is the council's power to raise money through the issue of bonds.
City councils may act as the agents of the state government in matters affecting education and charitable relief.
629. THE CITY COUNCIL: PROCEDURE.—The city council meets periodically, generally weekly or bi-weekly. It determines its own rules of procedure and keeps a journal. The committee system is used for the dispatch of business. Ordinances may be proposed by any member of the council. After being introduced, ordinances are read by title and are referred to the proper committee. A second and third reading at subsequent meetings are required. If the ordinance is approved by a majority of the council, it is signed by the presiding officer, and sent to the mayor. In many cities the mayor may veto any ordinance passed by the council. In case of a veto the measure becomes law only if passed by a two thirds—in some cities three fourths or four fifths—vote of the council. In those cities where the mayor has no veto power, the ordinance goes into effect immediately upon being passed by the council.
630. THE MAYOR.—In all cities where the mayor-council plan of government prevails, the chief executive officer is the mayor or chief magistrate. This officer is usually elected by popular vote, for a term varying from one to four years. Usually the term is two years, though in New England a one-year term is more common. The mayor is paid a salary which ranges from a few hundred dollars in the smaller cities to several thousands of dollars in a number of the larger municipalities.
631. THE MAYOR AND THE COUNCIL.—It is the duty of the mayor to communicate at least once a year to the city council a general statement of the administration and financial condition of the city. The mayor may also recommend to the city council, in his annual message or otherwise, the passage of ordinances which he considers needful. In smaller cities, and in a few of the larger municipalities, the mayor presides over the council and has a casting vote in case of a tie, but in most of the larger cities he is not a member of the council. In most cities he has the veto power. In many of the more recent city charters, the mayor is given the power to veto separate items in an appropriation bill, while approving the remainder of the measure, just as some Governors may veto separate items in appropriations bills enacted by the state legislature.
632. ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES OF THE MAYOR.—The mayor stands at the head of the city administration, but the extent of his control varies from city to city. In the last half century the decline in popular favor of the city council has been accompanied by a growing tendency to enlarge the administrative powers of the mayor. In many of the smaller cities the mayor is still little more than a presiding officer of the council. In such cities subordinate executive officials are usually chosen by popular vote or are appointed by the council. In other cities the mayor may appoint the chief administrative officials, subject to the consent of the council. In still other cities, including many of the larger municipalities, the mayor may both appoint and remove the heads of the executive departments, without interference on the part of the council.
633. OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICIALS.—Such highly complex and important matters as health, education, parks, charities, police, fire protection, and public works are the concern of the numerous administrative officials of the city. Administrative work is carried on by two methods, first, the board system, in which such concerns as schools, public health, and police are managed by boards composed of members of the city council; and second, single commissioners, who are more or less under the control of the mayor. The board system has proved less efficient than the single commissioner plan, and accordingly there is a tendency to abandon the former for the latter plan.
1. Describe the rapid growth of the American city.
2. What were the characteristics of the city in colonial times?
3. What were the distinguishing features of the American city between 1775 and 1825?
4. What distinguishes municipal development between 1825 and 1850?
5. What problems became prominent in municipal development between 1850 and 1875?
6. Outline the movement for municipal reform.
7. What are the three types of municipal government?
8. Describe the organization of the city council.
9. What are the chief powers of the city council?
10. Outline the making of an ordinance.
11. Discuss the term and salary of the mayor.
12. What is the relation of the mayor to the council?
13. What are the chief administrative duties of the mayor?
14. Name some other administrative officers.
1. Beard,American Government and Politics, chapter xxvii.
2. Guitteau,Government and Politics in the United Stairs, chapter iv.
3. Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xlii.
4. Reed,Form and Functions of American Government, chapter xvi
1. Define a city. (Guitteau, page 38.)
2. What is the English prototype of the American city? (Guitteau, page 39.)
3. Under what three heads may the powers of the mayor be grouped? (Beard, page 591.)
4. To what extent has the city council been shorn of its power? (Beard, pages 588-590.)
5. What is the meaning of the phrase "municipal home rule"? (Guitteau, page 45.)
6. What is meant by municipal democracy? (Beard, pages 597-598.)
7. What is the Des Moines plan of city government? (Guitteau, page 46.)
8. Describe briefly the organization of the government of New York. (Reed, pages 197-198.)
9. Summarize the functions of the American municipality. (Munro, pages 602-615.)
10. What is the extent of municipal ownership in the United States? (Munro, page 616.)
1. History of your municipality.
2. Present organization of your municipal government
3. The chief functions of your municipality.
4. Relation of your municipality to the state legislature.
5. Legislative power in your municipality.
6. The franchise-granting power in your municipality.
7. The English borough. (Fairlie,Municipal Administration, chapter iv.)
8. Historical development of the American city. (Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xl; Kimball,State and Municipal Government in the United States, chapter xx.)
9. Political consequences of city growth. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 433.)
10. Relation of city life to democracy. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, page 436.)
11. Evolution of municipal organization. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter i.)
12. Relation of the municipality to the state. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter ii.)
13. The voters of the city. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter iii.)
14. The mayor. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter ix; Fairlie,Municipal Administration, chapter xix.)
15. The city council. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter viii; Fairlie,Municipal Administration, chapter xvii.)
16. Municipal administrative offices. (Munro,The Government of American Cities, chapter x; Fairlie,Municipal Administration, chapter xviii.)
17. The needs of city government. (Gettell,Readings in Political Science, pages 441-442.)
18. The municipal government in action. (Bryce,The American Commonwealth, vol. i, chapter li.)
19. Municipal functions. (Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xlii; James,Local Government in the United States, chapter vii.)
20. Municipal finances. (Beard,American City Government, chapter v.)
21. The franchise problem. (Beard,American City Government, chapter vii.)
22. Municipal ownership as a political problem. (Beard,American City Government, chapter viii.)
23. The commission plan of municipal government. (Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xliii; see also any other standard text on American government.)
24. The city manager plan of municipal government. (Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xliii; see also any other standard text on American government.)
25. Municipal ownership of public utilities in your community.
26. Are the municipalities of your state too narrowly restricted by the state constitution and the state legislature?
27. The solution of the franchise problem.
28. Respective merits of the mayor-council plan, the commission plan, and the city manager plan, with particular reference to your municipality.
634. TYPES OF RURAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT.—Rural local governments in the United States vary widely as between different sections of the country, but in general they are divisible into three types. These are:
(a) the town type, so common in New England;
(b) the county type, found chiefly in the South, the Southwest, and the Far West; and
(c) the mixed type of the Middle, Central, and Northwestern states. These three general types will be discussed in the order named.
635. NATURE OF THE TOWN.—The basis of rural local government in New England is the town. [Footnote: The county exists in New England as an aggregation of towns. The county has acquired other functions, but it is still primarily a judicial district.] In general the New England town is an irregularly shaped area, varying in size from twenty to forty-five square miles. The area comprising the typical town is primarily rural, and generally contains one or more villages. Although the town is primarily a rural unit, the villages within its bounds may be so populous as to be classed as cities. Yet these populous communities may, as in the case of Brookline, Massachusetts, retain the town government. Other New England cities, such as New Haven and Hartford, Connecticut, have continued the town organization separate from the city government.
636. ORIGIN OF THE TOWN.—Some authorities believe that the town type of rural local government can be traced back through English history to the early Teutonic tribes. Whether or not this is true, it is certain that the principle is an ancient one, and that when New England was first settled, the colonists grouped together in small compact communities, or towns, instead of scattering over larger areas.
637. WHY TOWN GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN NEW ENGLAND.—Several factors are responsible for the tendency of the settlers of early New England to draw together in towns. From the economic point of view, the barren nature of the soil rendered extensive farms impracticable, while, on the other hand, the opportunities for fishing and commerce encouraged small, compact settlements along the coast. The hostility of many of the New England Indians also discouraged sparse settlements and obliged the people to settle in close formation. Lastly, many of the New England colonists came to the New World as groups or communities which in their European homes had pivoted about a common church; in New England these people naturally preferred to live very near one another.
638. TOWN GOVERNMENT.—The government of the New England town is vested in a town meeting, which consists of an annual session of the voters of the town. At this meeting the voters enact laws governing such local matters as town finance, schools, police, and highways. A second important function of the town meeting is to choose the town officers, including the selectmen, [Footnote: In Rhode Island the selectmen are known as the council.] the town clerk, treasurer, constable, and others. The chief executive officers are the selectmen, varying in number from three to nine, and generally chosen for the term of one year. The selectmen have general charge of town affairs, and act under authority conferred by statute or by the town meeting. The town clerk keeps the records, the treasurer has charge of the funds of the town and sometimes audits accounts, while the constable keeps the peace of the town, serves writs, and collects local taxes. In addition there are a number of minor officials, such as tax assessors, pound-keepers, guardians of the poor, highway officials, and library trustees.
639. WHY COUNTY GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN THE SOUTH.—The system of county government became as firmly intrenched in the Southern colonies as did the concept of the town in early New England. Four factors operated to discourage town government, and to encourage county government, in the South. First, the Southern colonists did not come in small family groups, as did the New Englanders, but rather as individuals and from different classes of society. Second, the Indians of the South were either weak or peaceful, so that fear of Indian attack did not oblige the colonists to congregate in small, compact communities. Third, the climate and soil of the South encouraged a plantation system which resulted in a sparse rather than in a compact population. Fourth, the aristocratic type of society developing from the plantation and slave system prevented the rise of the democratic town meeting.
640. GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUTHERN COUNTY.—Though county government is also found in the Southwest and Far West, it is seen in its purest form in the South. Here the county was originally a judicial district, or sometimes also a financial district to facilitate the collection of taxes. The functions of the county have gradually increased until such local affairs as schools, jails, poorhouses, and the maintenance of roads and bridges are concerns of the Southern county. The chief administrative authority in the county is either the county court, or a small board of commissioners. In either case the administrative authority is chosen by popular vote. In addition there are a number of minor officers such as the treasurer, tax assessor, and recorder, all of them chosen by popular vote for terms varying from one to four years.
641. GOVERNMENT OF THE FAR WESTERN COUNTY.—In the Far West, likewise, the most important unit of rural local government is the county. The county is governed by a board, usually consisting of three commissioners. In general the officers of the Far Western county resemble those in the central states. (See Section 644.)
C. THE MIXED TYPE [Footnote: Sometimes called the township-county system.]
642. ORIGIN OF THE MIXED TYPE.—The mixed type of rural local government is a hybrid, the result of the incomplete fusion of the town type with the county type. The northern parts of the Central states were settled largely by immigrants from New England, while the southern portions of the Middle West were settled by pioneers from Pennsylvania and the states south of the Ohio River. The New England immigrants were used to town government, and endeavored to perpetuate it in their new home; the settlers from the South preferred the county form of government, and sought its adoption in their new homes. The result was a compromise, some functions of rural local government being assigned to the county and some to the township.
643. THE TWO SUB-TYPES.—In the fusion of the town and county types of government the county system tended to predominate over the town or township form of government when settlers from the South were in the majority. In the northern section of the country, on the other hand, the compromise form tended to include a majority of the features of the town type. The result was the formulation of two sub-types.
The first of these may be called the Pennsylvania sub-type, so named because it originated in Pennsylvania, and then spread, with modifications, to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, and other states. In these states the town or township authority is subordinated to the county government. There is no town meeting.
The New York sub-type exists in typical form in New York, but is also found in New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and other states. The town meeting is found in these states, and in five of them the townships are represented on the county board.
644. THE NEW YORK SUB-TYPE.—In states possessing the New York sub- type of rural local government, the town meeting is still important. This meeting is similar to the New England town meeting, though it exercises less authority. All the legal voters of the township are qualified to take part in this meeting, which is held annually and on special occasions. At this meeting are chosen township officers for the following year. The most important of these are the supervisor, clerk, treasurer, assessor, and a varying number of constables and justices of the peace. In addition to electing these and other officers, the town meeting enacts legislation with regard to such local matters as bridges, roads, and schools.
In some of the Central states general executive authority over township affairs is vested in a township board, while in other states administrative authority is divided between a township board of from three to eleven members, and a supervisor or trustee. Besides these officials, there are a number of minor officers, including a clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, overseers of the poor, constables, and justices of the peace.
The county board continues to exist under the New York plan, but it is far less important than under the Pennsylvania sub-type. The functions of the county board are similar in these two sub-types.
645. THE PENNSYLVANIA SUB-TYPE.—In those states in which the Pennsylvania sub-type of rural local government prevails, general control of government is vested in a county board. This board is composed of three commissioners, who are elected by the voters of the county. In all of the Central states the county board possesses numerous powers, but the powers of the board are greater under the Pennsylvania than under the New York sub-type. Under the former plan the county board exercised four groups of powers: First, the levying of taxes and the appropriation of local funds; second, the maintenance of roads; third, poor-relief; and fourth, the supervision of local elections.
Besides the members of the county board there are a number of other county officials. The chief executive officer of the county court is the sheriff. The prosecuting attorney is an elective official, whose duty it is to conduct criminal prosecutions, and to act as the legal agent of the county. The treasurer has charge of county funds, and sometimes supervises the collection of taxes. He is elected by the people, generally for a two-year term. The clerk or auditor is an important county officer, as is the surveyor, the county superintendent of schools, and the recorder or register of deeds.
646. HOME RULE FOR COUNTIES.—Generally, county authorities are narrowly limited by the state constitution and state statutes. This has always resulted in numerous appeals to the legislature for special legislation, and has lately given rise to a demand for home rule for counties. In the effort to reduce the pressure for special laws in the legislature, the Michigan constitution of 1908 provided for a measure of home rule for counties. The legislature is authorized to confer legislative powers on the county boards, which may pass laws and ordinances relative to purely local affairs, provided such enactments do not conflict with state law, and provided, further, that such enactments do not interfere with the local affairs of any township, incorporated city, or village within the limits of the county. Such laws may be vetoed by the Governor, but may be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of the county board. Another step toward home rule was taken when in 1911 California by constitutional amendment empowered counties to frame their own charters, and, on securing popular approval, to put the same into effect. However, the charter thus framed and approved must first be sanctioned by the state legislature.
1. What are the three types of rural local government?
2. Discuss the nature of the town.
3. What is the origin of the town?
4. How is the town governed?
5. Why did county government develop in the rural South?
6. Outline the government of the southern county.
7. How did the mixed type of rural local government originate?
8. What two sub-types are included under the mixed type of rural local government?
9. Compare briefly these two sub-types.
10. Discuss the nature of the movement to permit home rule to counties.
1. Beard,American Government and Politics, chapter xxix.
2. Guitteau,Government and Politics in the United States, chapter ii.
3. Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xxxvii.
4. Reed,Form and Functions of American Government, chapter xviii.
1. Summarize the relation of local institutions to state government. (Guitteau, page 15.)
2. What factors are responsible for the decline of the town meeting in the Middle West? (Beard, page 651.)
3. Describe the early English county. (Guitteau, page 18.)
4. What are the chief divisions of the county in the southern and western parts of the United States? (Reed, pages 222-223.)
5. What are the sources of county government? (Reed, page 210.)
6. What is a "town chairman"? (Reed, page 222.)
7. What are the two types of county boards? (Beard, pages 640-641.)
8. What is a parish? (Guitteau, page 21.)
9. Why is there a growing demand that local institutions be placed under the supervision of the state government? (Beard, pages 654-655.)
10. What are the merits and defects of autonomy for rural local governments? (Munro, pages 544-545.)
1. Origin of local government in your section.
2. Development of rural local government in your community, or in some adjacent community.
3. The work of the tax assessor in rural local government.
4. Investigate the powers and duties of any other county, town, or township officer.
5. Origin and development of rural local government in the United States. (James,Local Government in the United States, chapter ii; Kimball,State and Municipal Government in the United States, chapter xvi.)
6. The New England town. (Fairlie,Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages, pages 141-146.)
7. Township government. (Fairlie,Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages, pages 164-185.)
8. General nature of county government. (Munro,The Government of the United States, chapter xxxviii.)
9. The organization of county government. (James,Local Government in the United States, chapter iii; Maxey,County Administration.)
10. Functions of county government. (James,Local Government in the United States, chapter iv; Maxey,County Administration.)
11. Financial administration in counties. (Maxey,County Administration.)
12. The administration of highways in counties. (Maxey,County Administration.)
13. Charitable and correctional institutions in the county. (Maxey,County Administration.)
14. Politics in rural local government. (Beard,American Government and Politics, chapter XXX.)
15. County home rule. (Gilbertson,The County, chapter xv.)
16. City and county consolidation. (Maxey,County Administration.)
17. New developments in county government. (James,Local Government in the United States, chapter viii.)
18. Rural local government in England. (Reed,Form and Functions of American Government, chapter xvii.)
19. Rural local government in France. (James,Local Government in the United States, chapter i.)
20. The relative merits of the town, county, and mixed type of rural local government.
21. The problem of efficiency in rural local government in your state.
22. The problem of responsibility in rural local government in your state.
23. Should rural local governments in your state be allowed a greater measure of home rule?
The following list contains all of the references that are mentioned in the text, either as required reading, or as the basis for suggested topic work. Special mention may be made here of Williamson'sReadings in American Democracy, prepared as a companion volume to the text, and published in 1922 by D. C. Heath & Co.
In harmony with the general arrangement of the text material, the references in this list have been grouped under the folio wing heads: Historical, Economic, Social, and Political.
An asterisk has been placed before references that should prove of value to those who desire to build up a small working library on problems in American democracy. Works of special importance are preceded by a double asterisk.
Adams, Ephraim D.The Power of Ideals in American History. YaleUniversity Press, New Haven. 1913.
**Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Philadelphia.
Becker, Carl Lotus.Beginnings of the American People. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1915.
* Cheyney, Edward P.An Introduction to the Industrial and SocialHistory of England. Macmillan, New York. 1901.
Crawford, Mary Caroline.Social Life in Old New England. Little,Brown Co., Boston. 1914.
* Fiske, John.The Critical Period of American History. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1888.
Hart, Albert Bushnell.Social and Economic Forces in AmericanHistory.
Huntington, Ellsworth.Civilization and Climate. Yale UniversityPress, New Haven. 1915.
Huntington, Ellsworth, and S. W. Gushing.Principles of HumanGeography. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1921.
**International Encyclopedia. Second edition. Dodd Mead & Co., New York. 1916.
**Lessons in Community and National Life, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Series A, B, and C, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1918.
McLaughlin, Andrew C.Steps in the Development of AmericanDemocracy. The Abingdon Press, New York. 1920.
———.The Confederation and the Constitution. Harper and Bros, New York. 1905.
Osgood, Herbert L.The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, 3 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
Semple, Ellen C.American History and its Geographic Conditions.Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1903.
Speare, Morris E., and W. B. Norris.World War Issues and Ideals.Ginn and Co., Boston. 1918.
** Turner, Frederick J.The Frontier in American History. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1920.
West, Willis M.The War and the New Age. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. 1919.
White, Albert Beebe.The Making of the English Constitution. Putnam,New York. 1908.
Adams, Henry C.Description of Industry. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 1918.
Ashley, Percy.Modern Tariff History. Button and Co., New York. 1911.
*Bishop, Avard L., and A. G. Keller.Industry and Trade. Ginn andCo., Boston. 1918.
Bloomfield, Daniel.Selected Articles on Modern Industrial MovementsH. W. Wilson Co., New York. 1919.
———.Selected Articles on Problems of Labor. H. W. Wilson Co., New York. 1920.
** Bogart, Ernest Ludlow.The Economic History of the United States.Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1912.
Bogart, Ernest Ludlow, and C. M. Thompson.Readings in the Economic History of the United States. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1917.
Brasol, Boris L.Socialism Versus Civilization. Chas. Scribner'sSons, New York. 1920.
Brooks, John Graham.American Syndicalism: the I. W. W.Macmillan,New York. 1913.
Bruce, Philip A.Economic History of Virginia in the SeventeenthCentury. 2 Vols. Macmillan, New York. 1907.
Bullock, Charles J.Selected Readings in Economics. Ginn and Co.,Boston. 1907.
———.Selected Readings in Public Finance. 2d edition. Ginn and Co, Boston. 1920.
———.The Elements of Economics. Silver, Burdett and Co., Boston. 1919.
Burritt, Arthur W., assisted by Dennison, Gay and others.Profit Sharing, its Principles and Practice. Harper and Bros., New York. 1918.
Callender, Guy S.Selections from the Economic History of the UnitedStates. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.
* Carlton, Frank T.History and Problems of Organized Labor. D. C.Heath and Co., Boston. 1911.
———.Organized Labor in American History. Appleton, New York. 1920.
** Carver, Thomas Nixon.Elementary Economics. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1920.
———.Essays in Social Justice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1915.
———.Principles of Rural Economics. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.
Clark, John Bates.Social Justice Without Socialism. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1914.
** Coman, Katharine.The Industrial History of the United States.Macmillan, New York. 1917. Commons, John R.Trade Unionism and LaborProblems. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1905.
Coulter, John L.Co÷peration Among Farmers. Sturgis and Walton, NewYork. 1919.
Current History Magazine, September, 1920. New YorkTimes, New York.
Dewey, Davis R.Financial History of the United States. Longmans,Green and Co., New York. 1915.
Dixon, Frank H., and J. H. Parmelee.War Administration of theRailways in the United States and Great Britain. Oxford UniversityPress. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
**Dryer, Charles R.Elementary Economic Geography. American BookCo., New York. 1916.
Dunbar, Charles F.The Theory and History of Banking. 3d edition.Putnam, New York. 1917.
Durand, Edward D.The Trust Problem. Harvard University Press,Cambridge. 1915.
Edie, Lionel D.Current Social and Industrial Forces. Boni andLiveright, New York. 1920.
** Ely, Richard T.Outlines of Economics. Macmillan, New York. 1918.
———.Socialism, an Examination of its Nature, its Strength and its Weakness. Crowell, Boston. 1895.
Fanning, C. E.Selected Articles on the Conservation of Natural Resources. Debaters' Handbook Series. H. W. Wilson Co., Minneapolis. 1913.
Fay, C. R.Co÷peration at Home and Abroad. Macmillan, New York. 1910.
** Fetter, Frank A.Modern Economic Problems. Century Co., New York. 1917.
Fiske, Amos K.The Modern Bank. Appleton, New York. 1914. Ford, James.Co÷peration in New England. New York. 1913. * George, Henry.Progress and Poverty. Doubleday, Page and Co, New York. 1916.
Groat, George G.An Introduction the Study of Organized Labor inAmerica. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
Hamilton, Walton H.Current Economic Problems. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. 1915.
Hammond, John Hays, and J. W. Jenks.Great American Issues, Chas.Scribner's Sons, New York. 1921.
Harris, Emerson P.Co÷peration, the Hope of the Consumer. Macmillan,New York. 1918.
Hayward, William R.Money, What it is, and How to Use It. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1917.
Hearings before a sub-committee of the Committee on the Judiciary. U.S. Senate. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
Hinds, William A.American Communities. 2d revision. Kerr and Co.,Chicago. 1908.
Hobson, John A.The Evolution of Modern Capitalism. New and revised edition. London. 1912.
Hoxie, Robert F.Scientific Management and Labor. Appleton, NewYork. 1915.
———.Trade Unionism in the United States. Appleton, New York. 1920.
*I. W. W. Constitution. Chicago. 1905.
* Johnson, Emory R.American Railway Transportation. Appleton, NewYork. 1912.
Kemmerer, Edwin W.The A B C of the Federal Reserve System.Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J. 1920.
King, Clyde L.Lower Living Costs in Cities. Appleton, New York. 1915.
* ———.The Regulation of Municipal Utilities. Appleton, New York. 1914.
* King, Willford Isbell.The Wealth and Income of the People of theUnited States. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
** LeRossignol, James Edward.Orthodox Socialism. Crowell, New York. 1907.
* Malthus, Thomas Robert.Essay on Population.
* Marshall, Leon C., and L. S. Lyon.Our Economic Organization.Macmillan, New York. 1921.
* Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels.The Communist Manifesto.
Memorandum on Certain Aspects of the Bolshevist Movement in Russia. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1919.
Myers, William Starr.Socialism and American Ideals. PrincetonUniversity Press, Princeton, 1919.
* Plehn, Carl C.Introduction to Public Finance. 4th edition.Macmillan, New York. 1920.
Porter, Robert P.The Dangers of Municipal Ownership. Century Co.,New York. 1907.
Powell, George H.Co÷peration in Agriculture. Macmillan, New York. 1913.
* Price, Overton W.The Land We Live In. Small, Maynard Co., Boston. 1919.
Ripley, William Z.Trusts, Pools and Corporations. Revised Edition.Ginn and Co., Boston. 1916.
** Seager, Henry Rogers.Principles of Economics. Henry Holt andCo., New York. 1917.
Seligman, Edwin R.Essays in Taxation. 8th edition. Macmillan, NewYork. 1917.
———.Principles of Economics. 6th edition. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1914.
* Skelton, O. D.Socialism, a Critical Analysis. Houghton MifflinCompany, Boston. 1911.
* Smith, Adam.An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations.
** Smith, J. Russell.Commerce and Industry. Henry Holt and Co., NewYork. 1916.
———.The Story of Iron and Steel. Appleton, New York. 1908.
Sonnichsen, Albert.Consumers' Co÷peration. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
Tarbell, Ida M.The Tariff in Our Times. Macmillan, New York. 1911.
** Taussig, Frank W.Principles of Economics. 2 vols. Macmillan, NewYork. 1919.
———.The Tariff History of the United States. Putnam, New York. 1916.
Thompson, Charles M.Elementary Economics. B. H. Sanborn and Co.,New York. 1920.
Thompson, Carl D.Municipal Ownership. B. W. Huebsch, New York 1917.
Van Hise, Charles R.Concentration and Control: a Solution of theTrust Problem in the United States. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
** ———.The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States. Macmillan, New York. 1918.
Weld, Louis D. H.The Marketing of Farm Products. Macmillan, NewYork. 1916.
White, Horace.Money and Banking. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.
Wood, Thomas B.The Story of a Loaf of Bread. Putnam, New York. 1913.
Young, Arthur N.The Single Tax Movement in the United States.Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1916.
Abbott, Edith.Women in Industry. Appleton, New York. 1910. Abbott,Grace.The Immigrant and the Community. Century Co., New York. 1917.
Addams, Jane.The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. Macmillan,New York. 1909.
Anderson, Wilbert Lee.The Country Town. Baker and Taylor Co., NewYork. 1906.
Antin, Mary.The Promised Land. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1912. ———.They Who Knock at Our Gates. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston 1914.
*Atlanta University Publications. Atlanta University Press, Atlanta, Georgia.
Bailey, Liberty Hyde.The Training of Farmers. Century Co., NewYork. 1909.
Baldwin, Simeon E.The Relation of Education to Citizenship. YaleUniversity Press, New Haven. 1912.
Bloomfield, Meyer.The Vocational Guidance of Youth. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1911.
Bogardus, Emory S.Essentials of Americanization. University ofSouthern California, Press, Los Angeles. 1919.
Booth, Maud Ballington.After Prison—What?F. H. Revell Co., NewYork 1903.
* Bryce, James.The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. Yale UniversityPress, New Haven. 1919.
** Burch, Henry Reed, and S. W. Patterson.American Social Problems.Macmillan, New York. 1919.
Butler, Elizabeth B.Women and the Trades. New York, 1909.
Butler, Nicholas Murray.The Meaning of Education, and Other Essays.Macmillan, New York. 1905.
Butterfield, Kenyon L.The Country Church and the Rural Problem.Chicago University Press, Chicago. 1911.
* ———.The Farmer and the New Day. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
Cabot, Richard C.Social Work: Essays on the Meeting Ground of Doctor and Social Worker. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919.
Carney, Mabel.Country Life and the Country School. Row, Peterson and Co., Chicago. 1912.
** Carver, Thomas Nixon.Sociology and Social Progress. Ginn andCo., Boston. 1905.
Cleveland, Frederick A., and Joseph Schafer.Democracy inReconstruction.Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1919.
Colcord, Joanna C.Broken Homes: a Study of Family Desertion and itsSocial Treatment. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 1919.
* Commons, John R.Races and Immigrants in America. Macmillan, NewYork. 1911.
Conyngton, Mary.How to Help.The Ronald Press, New York. 1906.
Coolidge, Mary.Chinese Immigration. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1909.
Cubberley, Ellwood P.Changing Conceptions in Education. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1909.
* ———.Public Education in the United States. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919.
Curtis, Henry S.Education Through Play. Macmillan, New York. 1915.
Davenport, Eugene.Education for Efficiency. D. C. Heath Co.,Boston. 1909.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education.Bulletin 1919, No. 77.State Americanization. Washington, D. C. 1920.
* Devine, Edward T.Misery and its Causes. Macmillan, New York. 1909.
* ———.The Practice of Charity. Dodd Mead and Co., New York. 1904.
* ———.The Principles of Relief. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
* ———.The Spirit of Social Work. Charities Publication Committee, New York. 1912.
Dewey, John.Schools of To-morrow. Dutton, New York. 1915.
Dugdale, Richard L.The Jukes, a Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity. Putnam, New York. 1891.
Eliot, Charles W.Education for Efficiency. Houghton Mifflin Co.,Boston. 1909.
** Ellwood, Charles A.Sociology and Modern Social Problems.American Book Co., New York. 1919.
Fisher, Irving.Bulletin of the Committee of One Hundred on NationalHealth, being a Report on National Vitality, its Wastes andConservation.Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1909.
Galpin, Charles J. _Rural Life. Century Co., New York. 1918.
* George, William R.The Junior Republic, its History and Ideals.Appleton, New York. 1910.
Gill, Charles O., and Gifford Pinchot.The Country Church.Macmillan, New York. 1913.
** Gillette, John Morris.Constructive Rural Sociology. Sturgis andWalton, New York. 1913.
Goddard, Henry H.The Kallikak Family. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
* Goodsell, Willystine.The Family as a Social and EducationalInstitution. Macmillan, New York. 1915.
Gulick, Charlotte E.Emergencies. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.
Gulick, Sidney L.American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship. Chas.Scribner's Sons, New York. 1919.
Hadley, Arthur T.The Education of the American Citizen.Chas.Scribner's Sons, New York. 1902.
* ———.The Relation between Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1903.
Hall, Herbert J., and M. M. C. Buck.Handicrafts for theHandicapped. Moffat, Yard and Co., New York. 1916.
** Hall, Prescott F.Immigration, and its Effects on the United States.Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1906.
Henderson, Charles Hanford.What is it to be Educated? HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1914.
* Henderson, Charles Richmond.An Introduction to the Study of theDependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes. D. C. Heath and Co.,Boston. 1908.
———.Modern Methods of Charity. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
* ———.Modern Prison Systems. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1903.
Hutchinson, Woods.Preventable Diseases.Houghton Mifflin Co.,Boston, 1909.
* Jenks, Jeremiah, and W. Jett Lauck.The Immigration Problem. 4th edition. Funk and Wagnalls, New York. 1917.
* Keller, Helen.The Story of My Life.Doubleday, Page and Co., NewYork. 1903.
Kelley, Florence.Some Ethical Gains through Legislation. New York. 1905.
King, Irving.Education for Social Efficiency. Appleton, New York. 1913. Leake, Albert H.Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods and Danger. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1913.
* Lee, Frederick S.The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency.Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1918.
** Lewis, Burdette G.The Offender and His Relations to Law andSociety.Harper and Bros., New York. 1917.
Lichtenberger, James P.Divorce, a Study in Social Causation.NewYork. 1909.
MacLean, Annie M.Women Workers and Society. McClurg, Chicago, 1916.
* McMurry, Frank M.How to Study and Teaching How to Study. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 1909.
** Mangold, George B.Problems of Child Welfare. Macmillan, NewYork. 1914.
Ogden, Henry Neely.Rural Hygiene. Macmillan, New York. 1911.
Oliver, Thomas.Diseases of Occupation, from the Legislative, Social and Medical Points of View. London. 1908.
Osborne, Thomas Mott.Society and Prisons.Yale University Press,New Haven. 1916.
* Parsons, Frank.Choosing a Vocation. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1909.
** Perry, Clarence A.Wider Use of the School Plant. CharitiesPublication Committee, New York. 1910.
Queen, Stuart.The Passing of the County Jail. George BantaPublishing Co., Menasha, Wis. 1920.
* Riis, Jacob A.The Battle with the Slum. Macmillan, New York. 1902.
Riis, Jacob A.The Peril and the Preservation of the Home. G. W.Jacobs Co., Philadelphia. 1903.
* Roberts, Peter.The Problem of Americanization. Macmillan, NewYork. 1920.
* Rubinow, Isaac M.Standards of Health Insurance. Henry Holt & Co.,New York. 1916.
Sargent, Dudley A.Physical Education. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1906.
** Smith, Reginald Heber.Justice and the Poor. Carnegie Foundation for the advancement of teaching, Bulletin No. 13, New York. 1919.
* Smith, Richard Mayo.Emigration and Immigration. Chas. Scribner'sSons, New York. 1904.
* Steiner, Edward A.From Alien to Citizen. F. H. Revell Co., NewYork. 1914.
* ———.On the Trail of the Immigrant. F. H. Revell Co., New York. 1906.
Steiner, Jessie F.The Japanese Invasion. Chicago, 1917.
Storey, Moorfield.Problems of To-day. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1920.
Taylor, Joseph S.A Handbook of Vocational Education. Macmillan, NewYork. 1914.
Tillinghast, Joseph A.The Negro in Africa and America. AmericanEconomic Association, New York. 1902.
Tolman, Wm. H.Hygiene for the Worker. American Book Co., New York. 1912.
Tufts, James H.The Real Business of Living. Henry Holt and Co., NewYork. 1918.
** Vogt, Paul L.Introduction to Rural Sociology. Appleton, NewYork. 1917.
** Warner, Amos G.American Charities. 3d edition. Crowell, NewYork. 1919.
Washington, Booker T.The Future of the American Negro. Small,Maynard Co., Boston. 1902.
———.The Story of the Negro. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1909.
** ———.Tuskegee and its People, their Ideals and Achievements. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1905.
** ———.Up from Slavery. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1901.
Waugh, Frank A.Rural Improvement, etc. Orange Judd Co., New York. 1914.
Willcox, Walter F.The Divorce Problem: a Study in Statistics. NewYork. 1897.
* Williamson, Thames Ross. i>Sociology of the American Negro_.
** Wines, Frederick H.Punishment and Reformation. Latest edition.
* Wolfe, Albert.Readings in Social Problems. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1916.
Wood, Edith.The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. Macmillan,New York. 1919.
Woods, Arthur.Crime Prevention. Princeton University Press,Princeton. 1918.
* Woods, Robert A.Americans in Process. Houghton Mifflin Co.,Boston. 1902.
Beard, Charles A.American Citizenship. Macmillan, New York. 1917
———.American City Government. Century Co., New York. 1912.
** ———.American Government and Politics. Macmillan, New York. 1920.
———.An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. Macmillan, New York. 1913.
———.Readings in American Government and Politics. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
———.The Supreme Court and the Constitution. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
Beard, Charles A., and Birl Schultz.Documents on the State-wideInitiative, Referendum and Recall. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
Borgeaud, Charles.Adoption and Amendment of Constitutions in Europe and America. Macmillan, New York. 1895.