J. D. WHITNEY.
VICE PRESIDENTS.
LEANDER RANSOM.R. E. C. STEARNS.
TREASURER.
SAMUEL HUBBARD.
CORRESPONDING SEC’Y.
W. B. EWER.
RECORDING SEC’Y.
THEODORE BRADLEY.
LIBRARIAN.
H. KELLOGG, M.D.
CURATORS.
COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.
Messrs. WHITNEY, HUBBARD, ASHBURNER, and STEARNS.
COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION.
Messrs. WHITNEY, AYRES, and STEARNS.
COMMITTEE ON THE LIBRARY.
Messrs. JANIN, GIBBONS, and KELLOGG.
COMMITTEE ON PROCEEDINGS.
Messrs. KEYES, BOLANDER, and BOSQUI.
Dr. Behr submitted specimens of microscopic crustaceans, of a brilliant red color, found upon the surface of a lake in Marin County; he remarked that they might be of some use in the arts, if they could be obtained in sufficient quantity.
President in the Chair.
Twenty-three members present.
Governor R. C. McCormick, of Arizona, and R. C. Jacobs, of Chihuahua, were elected Corresponding Members, and Messrs. J. W. Kidwell, A. Sutro, A. T. Mason, H. C. Bidwell and H. P. Carlton were elected Resident Members.
Donations to the Library: Oversigt over det Kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Förhandlingar i Aaret 1864, 1 Vol., 8vo., Copenhagen. The same, 1866, Nos. 2-4. 32er Jahresbericht des Mannheimer Vereins für Naturkunde, 1 Vol. 12mo., 1866, (2 copies.) Mittheilungen aus dem Osterlande, 17er Band, 3 und 4 Heft, Altenburg, 1866. Jahreshefte des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins für das Fürstenthum Lüneburg, I., 1865, 8vo. Der Zoologische Garten, vii Jahrgang, Nos. 7, 9, 11, 12, 8vo., Frankfurt, 1866. Bericht über die XIV Versammlung der Deutschen Ornithologen-Gesells., 8vo., 1862. Sitzungs-Berichte der Naturw. Gesells. Isis in Dresden, Jahrg. 1866, 8vo., Dresden. Jahrbuch der k. k. Geolog. Reichsanstalt, Jahrg. 1866, No. 3, 8vo., Wien. Abhandlungen herausgegeben vom Naturw. Vereine zu Bremen, I Bd. 1 Heft, 8vo., Bremen, 1866. Journal de Conchyliologie, 3me Série, Tome vi., Nos. 3, 4, 8vo., Paris, 1866. On the Osteology and Myology of Colymbus Torquatus, by R. Elliot Coues, (Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 1, Part ii.) 4to., Cambridge, 1866. Journal of the Royal Hortic. Society of London, Vol. 1, Part 4, 12mo., 1867. Same, Proceedings, Vol. 1, N. S., No. 6, Aug., 1866, Jan., 1867, 12mo., London. Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesells. der Meteorologie, 1 Band, 1866. Sitzungsberichte der Königl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München,1865, II, 3-4; 1866, I, 1-4; II, 1, 8vo., Munich. Die Bedeutung moderner Gradmessungen, von Bauernfeind, 4to., pamphlet, München, 1866. Verzeichniss von 9412, Æquatorial-Sternen, ein Sup. Band zu der Ann. der Münch. Sternwarte, 8vo., Munich, 1866. Resultate Magnetischer, etc., Beobachtungen auf einer Reise nach dem östlichen Sibirien 1828-30, von Prof. C. Hansteen and Lieut. Due, 4to., Christiania, 1863. Hansteen, Magnetismus der Erde, 1 Theil, 4to., Christiania, 1819, with plates separate. Meteorologiske Iagttagelser paa Christiania Observatorium, 1865, long 4to., Christiania, 1866. Mœrker efter en Jistid i Omegn af Hardangerfjorden, af S. A. Sexe, 4to., pamphlet, Christiania, 1866. Bidrag til Bygningskikkens Udvikling paa Landet i Norge, 1ste Hefte, 4to., pamphlet, Christiania, 1865.
Dr. Kellogg exhibited specimens ofThaspium cordatum, (Heart-leaf Meadow Parsnip) a plant which has become somewhat known in cases of chronic rheumatism, and which is common on this coast. He remarked that it might be mistaken forSanicula, (Sanicle) or possibly forConium maculatum(Poison Hemlock).
Dr. Kellogg also presented specimens of a beautiful Alpine willow-herb collected by Mr. Blanchard, of Brooklyn, Alameda County; it was found in the mountains west of Owen’s Lake, near the Kearsarge mines, at an altitude of 8,000 feet. He considered it a variety ofEpilobium obcordatum, Gray. This plant is described in the Proc. Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences for May, 1865.
Dr. James Blake read the following communication:
On the Nourishment of the Fœtus in the Embiotocoid Fishes.BY JAMES BLAKE, M.D., F.R.C.S.I am not aware that the process by which the embryo of the Embiotocoid fishes receive the nourishment necessary for its growth, has ever been pointed out. It certainly differs from the three most common forms in which the embryo of other animals is nourished, as there is nothing like a placenta by which they can receive nourishment from the mother; there is no supply of nutriment surrounding the embryo, as in the case of most oviparous animals, nor is the embryo brought into direct contact with the water, so as to derive nourishment by absorption from the surrounding medium, as is the case in oviparous fishes generally and in most of the lower forms of animal life. The young fish iscontained in a uterus which, in the undeveloped state, resembles very much the ovaries of the common oviparous fishes, except that its walls are thicker, and that the number of ova it contains is very much smaller. In the interior of the uterus, projecting from its sides, are a number of processes analogous to those to which the ova are usually attached. These processes vary in number in different examples, but they are so arranged that each fœtal fish is in contact on every side with a surface of one of these processes. They consist apparently of a membrane composed of a cellular tissue, and scattered over their surface are a number of small mammillary elevations with an orifice in the center, and which are probably the organs by which the peculiar secretion of the uterus, to be hereafter noticed, is poured out. In an example I examined, in which impregnation had apparently just taken place, numerous ova were found adhering to these processes, although not at all in such numbers as in the ordinary fishes. I counted thirty-eight in about the space of an inch; of these, however, but few can be developed, as the number of fœtuses seldom exceeds forty, and sometimes is only eight. In the whole of the uterus there probably were from one hundred to one hundred and fifty ova. Of the earlier stages of development, however, it is not my object to treat in the present memoir, as I did not commence my investigations sufficiently early to be able fully to make it out. As soon, however, as the embryo has advanced sufficiently for the fins to be formed, these appendages are found to be terminated by a number of digitations, which project from the free edges of the fin, and are usually found situated, one between each ray or spine. They are composed almost entirely of fine capillary blood-vessels, united apparently by a very delicate and structureless membrane. They are so delicate that unless great care is taken in removing the specimen from the uterus, they are destroyed; nor have I ever been able to discover them in specimens that have been preserved in alcohol. These processes seem continuous with the membrane extended between the rays of the fins, but are much more delicate; they project from the free edge of the fin, sometimes as much as the eighth of an inch, and are, in the fully developed embryo, the fifteenth of an inch broad. On the free margin of each digitation, a larger capillary can be observed, which appears to be continuous all around; it is about the .003 in. in diameter, the intermediate space being filled with a net-work of smaller capillaries. This system of digitations projects from the entire edge of the dorsal, ventral and caudal fins, but not from the pectorals. They in fact form a fringe round the entire body, with the exception of the head and that part of the abdomen in front of the anus.Such is the structure of the organ that evidently has some connection with the nourishment of the fœtus, resembling as it does so closely the early formation of the vascular villi and the placental tufts that proceed from the chorion of the mammiferous embryo, and through which it derives its nourishment before the placenta is fully formed.The question now presents itself as to how nourishment is conveyed from the parent to the fœtus through these tufts? As before stated, the lining membrane of the uterus sends off processes which surround each fœtus, without however forming sheet sacks; but although these processes are very freely suppliedwith blood-vessels, yet the finest injection failed to show any more vascular spots where the fœtal digitations might have been brought into more immediate contact with the blood of the parent. I however was fortunate enough to obtain a fish, in the uterus of which I discovered a considerable quantity of fluid, and on collecting it, and submitting it to chemical tests, I found that this fluid contained a considerable quantity of an animal substance, resembling, to a certain extent, some of the compounds that are formed from albumen during the process of digestion. The fluid was of yellowish color, translucent, deposited on standing some small globules which under the microscope strongly refracted the light, were not altered by acetic acid, but dissolved in ether; probably fat globules; when heated, there was no coagulation, although the fluid was not quite so clear; solution of Hg Cl₂ caused no precipitate; tannin in solution caused a yellowish precipitate. In adding ether to a portion of the fluid, there was a free disengagement of gas, a white flocculent precipitate was formed, and on allowing the vessel to stand, the fluid separated itself into threeportions: the upper portion consisting of pure ether apparently, then a layer containing white flocculi, which occupied about the fourth part of the fluid, and below this the remains of the original fluid, but little altered in appearance. There can, I think, be little doubt but that it is through the medium of this fluid that the fœtus obtains its nourishment. The considerable portion of animal matter it contains, and that too in a state particularly fitted for absorption and for conversion into tissue, fits it for furnishing the fœtus with the elements necessary for its growth by absorption through the large surface of capillary vessels which are found in the vascular digitations that surround the fœtus, and which are constantly bathed in the fluid. The difficulty that up to the present time has attended every attempt to trace the connection between the parent and fœtus in these embiotocoid fishes, is owing, in the first place, to the extreme delicacy of the vascular digitations of the fœtus, which prevents their being observed in preserved specimens, and also to the fact that in almost every case the fluid secreted by the uterus is entirely expelled by the violent struggles of the fish when removed from the water, so that it was almost by a rare accident that I succeeded in obtaining any. I hope, however, during the coming season, to be able more fully to carry out these researches.Fig. 30.A Fœtal Fish, about two-thirds grown, slightly enlarged.Fig. 31.A portion of Dorsal Fin of an almost mature fœtal fish, about double the natural size.Fig. 32.A portion of a Digitation, magnified about 150 diameters, showing capillaries.San Francisco, January 21st, 1867.
BY JAMES BLAKE, M.D., F.R.C.S.
I am not aware that the process by which the embryo of the Embiotocoid fishes receive the nourishment necessary for its growth, has ever been pointed out. It certainly differs from the three most common forms in which the embryo of other animals is nourished, as there is nothing like a placenta by which they can receive nourishment from the mother; there is no supply of nutriment surrounding the embryo, as in the case of most oviparous animals, nor is the embryo brought into direct contact with the water, so as to derive nourishment by absorption from the surrounding medium, as is the case in oviparous fishes generally and in most of the lower forms of animal life. The young fish iscontained in a uterus which, in the undeveloped state, resembles very much the ovaries of the common oviparous fishes, except that its walls are thicker, and that the number of ova it contains is very much smaller. In the interior of the uterus, projecting from its sides, are a number of processes analogous to those to which the ova are usually attached. These processes vary in number in different examples, but they are so arranged that each fœtal fish is in contact on every side with a surface of one of these processes. They consist apparently of a membrane composed of a cellular tissue, and scattered over their surface are a number of small mammillary elevations with an orifice in the center, and which are probably the organs by which the peculiar secretion of the uterus, to be hereafter noticed, is poured out. In an example I examined, in which impregnation had apparently just taken place, numerous ova were found adhering to these processes, although not at all in such numbers as in the ordinary fishes. I counted thirty-eight in about the space of an inch; of these, however, but few can be developed, as the number of fœtuses seldom exceeds forty, and sometimes is only eight. In the whole of the uterus there probably were from one hundred to one hundred and fifty ova. Of the earlier stages of development, however, it is not my object to treat in the present memoir, as I did not commence my investigations sufficiently early to be able fully to make it out. As soon, however, as the embryo has advanced sufficiently for the fins to be formed, these appendages are found to be terminated by a number of digitations, which project from the free edges of the fin, and are usually found situated, one between each ray or spine. They are composed almost entirely of fine capillary blood-vessels, united apparently by a very delicate and structureless membrane. They are so delicate that unless great care is taken in removing the specimen from the uterus, they are destroyed; nor have I ever been able to discover them in specimens that have been preserved in alcohol. These processes seem continuous with the membrane extended between the rays of the fins, but are much more delicate; they project from the free edge of the fin, sometimes as much as the eighth of an inch, and are, in the fully developed embryo, the fifteenth of an inch broad. On the free margin of each digitation, a larger capillary can be observed, which appears to be continuous all around; it is about the .003 in. in diameter, the intermediate space being filled with a net-work of smaller capillaries. This system of digitations projects from the entire edge of the dorsal, ventral and caudal fins, but not from the pectorals. They in fact form a fringe round the entire body, with the exception of the head and that part of the abdomen in front of the anus.
Such is the structure of the organ that evidently has some connection with the nourishment of the fœtus, resembling as it does so closely the early formation of the vascular villi and the placental tufts that proceed from the chorion of the mammiferous embryo, and through which it derives its nourishment before the placenta is fully formed.
The question now presents itself as to how nourishment is conveyed from the parent to the fœtus through these tufts? As before stated, the lining membrane of the uterus sends off processes which surround each fœtus, without however forming sheet sacks; but although these processes are very freely suppliedwith blood-vessels, yet the finest injection failed to show any more vascular spots where the fœtal digitations might have been brought into more immediate contact with the blood of the parent. I however was fortunate enough to obtain a fish, in the uterus of which I discovered a considerable quantity of fluid, and on collecting it, and submitting it to chemical tests, I found that this fluid contained a considerable quantity of an animal substance, resembling, to a certain extent, some of the compounds that are formed from albumen during the process of digestion. The fluid was of yellowish color, translucent, deposited on standing some small globules which under the microscope strongly refracted the light, were not altered by acetic acid, but dissolved in ether; probably fat globules; when heated, there was no coagulation, although the fluid was not quite so clear; solution of Hg Cl₂ caused no precipitate; tannin in solution caused a yellowish precipitate. In adding ether to a portion of the fluid, there was a free disengagement of gas, a white flocculent precipitate was formed, and on allowing the vessel to stand, the fluid separated itself into threeportions: the upper portion consisting of pure ether apparently, then a layer containing white flocculi, which occupied about the fourth part of the fluid, and below this the remains of the original fluid, but little altered in appearance. There can, I think, be little doubt but that it is through the medium of this fluid that the fœtus obtains its nourishment. The considerable portion of animal matter it contains, and that too in a state particularly fitted for absorption and for conversion into tissue, fits it for furnishing the fœtus with the elements necessary for its growth by absorption through the large surface of capillary vessels which are found in the vascular digitations that surround the fœtus, and which are constantly bathed in the fluid. The difficulty that up to the present time has attended every attempt to trace the connection between the parent and fœtus in these embiotocoid fishes, is owing, in the first place, to the extreme delicacy of the vascular digitations of the fœtus, which prevents their being observed in preserved specimens, and also to the fact that in almost every case the fluid secreted by the uterus is entirely expelled by the violent struggles of the fish when removed from the water, so that it was almost by a rare accident that I succeeded in obtaining any. I hope, however, during the coming season, to be able more fully to carry out these researches.
Fig. 30.A Fœtal Fish, about two-thirds grown, slightly enlarged.
Fig. 30.A Fœtal Fish, about two-thirds grown, slightly enlarged.
Fig. 31.A portion of Dorsal Fin of an almost mature fœtal fish, about double the natural size.
Fig. 31.A portion of Dorsal Fin of an almost mature fœtal fish, about double the natural size.
Fig. 32.A portion of a Digitation, magnified about 150 diameters, showing capillaries.
Fig. 32.A portion of a Digitation, magnified about 150 diameters, showing capillaries.
San Francisco, January 21st, 1867.
Mr. Bolander exhibited the cones of many species of pines growing in this State, and stated what was known concerning the peculiarities of the different species, and their geographical distribution.
He stated that the pines of California comprise sixteen true species, which he described briefly. There are twenty synonyms for these species, which have created some confusion as to their real name and number. The correct names of all, with the popular characteristics of the most striking, and their distribution, are given herewith. The names marked thus * are those of trees having persistent cones, which they retain from ten to twenty years in some instances. Those marked thus † retain their cones but two years. Those marked thus ‡ retain them but one year:Pinus insignis.*—Well known as the ornamental Monterey pine, which is much cultivated in San Francisco.P. muricata.*—Not remarkable.P. contorta.*—Small and bushy, but valuable as shelter against wind. Grows abundantly near Fort Bragg, in the Mendocino country, where it makes the stoutest wind-proof hedge known. Ought to be tried in San Francisco.P. tuberculata.*—Always small, seldom higher than 15 to 30 feet.P. ponderosa.‡—The well known yellow pine. Attains a height of 225 feet and more, and a circumference of 23 or 24 feet.P. Lambertiana.*—The equally well known, larger and handsome “sugar pine,” or “long-cone pine” of Frémont. Usually grows at great altitudes; exceedingly valuable for timber, and affords the principal supplies.P. Coulteri.†—Found in the lower eastern slope of the Coast Range. Not very large; sometimes attains a height of 75 feet; knotty, but ornamental. It is remarkable for having the largest cone of all the pines, and specimens of its cone, when first known, brought five guineas in England.P. Sabiniana.†—This is the nut pine of the foothills, sometimes called the “scrub pine,” or “silver pine.” The Digger Indians gather the nuts from its cone as a favorite article of food. It is found on the foothills of both Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada.Mr. Bolander mentioned several species in the group of coast pines which he had not seen, viz:P. Llaveana, east of San Diego;P. deflexa, on the summit of the California Mountains;P. Torreyana,* near San Diego.P. monticola.‡—A tall tree and affording fine timber; said to be hardier than the sugar pine, and might be preferred if its position near the summit did not make it difficult of access.P. flexilis.‡—This grows on windy heights in the form of a low shrub, so stout and thick that a man can stand on its top. In low altitudes it reaches a height of a hundred feet. It is useful only for firewood.P. monophylla.—This is a stunted, twisted tree, which grows on the eastern slope of the Sierra, where it corresponds to the nut-pine on the western slope. At a distance it resembles in shape the live oak. Its cone is ill shapen and has an offensive odor, but yields a sweet nut.P. Balfouriana.—This species is found near Scott’s Valley, in Northern California.Five species in the above list—insignis,muricata,Llaveana,deflexaandTorreyana—are peculiar to the sea coast. Five species—thecontorta,ponderosa,Lambertiana,Sabiniana,tuberculata—are found both in the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada. TheCoulteriis found only in the Coast Range, eastern slope; themonticolaonly high in the Sierra; theflexilisonly on the upper Sierra and western slope of the same; and themonophyllaonly on the eastern slope.
He stated that the pines of California comprise sixteen true species, which he described briefly. There are twenty synonyms for these species, which have created some confusion as to their real name and number. The correct names of all, with the popular characteristics of the most striking, and their distribution, are given herewith. The names marked thus * are those of trees having persistent cones, which they retain from ten to twenty years in some instances. Those marked thus † retain their cones but two years. Those marked thus ‡ retain them but one year:
Pinus insignis.*—Well known as the ornamental Monterey pine, which is much cultivated in San Francisco.
P. muricata.*—Not remarkable.
P. contorta.*—Small and bushy, but valuable as shelter against wind. Grows abundantly near Fort Bragg, in the Mendocino country, where it makes the stoutest wind-proof hedge known. Ought to be tried in San Francisco.
P. tuberculata.*—Always small, seldom higher than 15 to 30 feet.
P. ponderosa.‡—The well known yellow pine. Attains a height of 225 feet and more, and a circumference of 23 or 24 feet.
P. Lambertiana.*—The equally well known, larger and handsome “sugar pine,” or “long-cone pine” of Frémont. Usually grows at great altitudes; exceedingly valuable for timber, and affords the principal supplies.
P. Coulteri.†—Found in the lower eastern slope of the Coast Range. Not very large; sometimes attains a height of 75 feet; knotty, but ornamental. It is remarkable for having the largest cone of all the pines, and specimens of its cone, when first known, brought five guineas in England.
P. Sabiniana.†—This is the nut pine of the foothills, sometimes called the “scrub pine,” or “silver pine.” The Digger Indians gather the nuts from its cone as a favorite article of food. It is found on the foothills of both Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada.
Mr. Bolander mentioned several species in the group of coast pines which he had not seen, viz:P. Llaveana, east of San Diego;P. deflexa, on the summit of the California Mountains;P. Torreyana,* near San Diego.
P. monticola.‡—A tall tree and affording fine timber; said to be hardier than the sugar pine, and might be preferred if its position near the summit did not make it difficult of access.
P. flexilis.‡—This grows on windy heights in the form of a low shrub, so stout and thick that a man can stand on its top. In low altitudes it reaches a height of a hundred feet. It is useful only for firewood.
P. monophylla.—This is a stunted, twisted tree, which grows on the eastern slope of the Sierra, where it corresponds to the nut-pine on the western slope. At a distance it resembles in shape the live oak. Its cone is ill shapen and has an offensive odor, but yields a sweet nut.
P. Balfouriana.—This species is found near Scott’s Valley, in Northern California.
Five species in the above list—insignis,muricata,Llaveana,deflexaandTorreyana—are peculiar to the sea coast. Five species—thecontorta,ponderosa,Lambertiana,Sabiniana,tuberculata—are found both in the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada. TheCoulteriis found only in the Coast Range, eastern slope; themonticolaonly high in the Sierra; theflexilisonly on the upper Sierra and western slope of the same; and themonophyllaonly on the eastern slope.
President in the Chair.
Twenty-eight members present.
Messrs. Joseph P. LeCount, C. Von Liebenau, Amory F. Bell, W. C. Walker, George H. Powers, Thomas Bennett, M.D., L. Gilson, Delos J. Howe, R. S. Williamson, U. S. Engineers, R. D’Heureuse, Rev. John F. Harrington, H. C. Hyde, G. B. Hitchcock and Jacob Bacon were elected Resident Members.
Donations to Library: Review of the Mining, Agricultural andCommercial Interests of the Pacific States, from J. H. Carmany. Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne, by A. de Humboldt, 2 Vols., 4to., and atlas folio, Paris, 1811, presented by A. Sutro.
Professor Whitney read the following communication:
On the Fresh Water Infusorial Deposits of the Pacific Coast, and their Connection with the Volcanic Rocks.BY J. D. WHITNEY.The microscopic discoveries of the last few years have immensely extended the range and importance of the minute, and, to the naked eye, invisible organisms, which, under the general designation of “Infusoria,” are recognized as a part of the kingdom of nature. It is especially to Ehrenberg that we are indebted for a demonstration of the geological importance of the Diatoms, those microscopic organisms which so long puzzled naturalists to decide whether they were animal or vegetable in their nature, but which are now, by the majority of zoölogists, referred to as plants. In Ehrenberg’s great work, the “Mikrogeologie,” or geology in little, this eminent naturalist has given the results of the examination, by himself, of specimens of infusorial rocks, soils, ashes, dust, and other accumulations or masses of matter from every quarter of the globe: these investigations show most conclusively that deposits of vast extent—of such magnitude, indeed, as to form no inconsiderable portion of the earth’s crust—are the result of organic agencies, and that what seems to the eye an unorganized mass, may in reality be made up of the delicately wrought and almost infinitely minute remains of plant or animal life.That animals, or plants, so minute that a hundred millions of distinct individuals will scarcely weigh a single grain, should form accumulations hundreds of feet in thickness and extending over thousands of square miles, seems a hardly credible statement; but a fact still more difficult to believe and comprehend is one which is thoroughly established by abundant evidence, namely: that immense deposits of volcanic materials, or, at least, of materials closely connected in their origin and nature with volcanic action, and spread over vast tracts of country in different parts of the world, are also, to a large extent, made up of these microscopic organisms, the existence of which seems dependent on the presence of water, and so utterly at variance with a condition of volcanic activity.Throughout this volcanic region of California, Oregon, Nevada, and probably as far north as the igneous masses extend, which are well known to cover a vast area on the western side of our continent, there are found deposits, which are usually called “fire-clay,” “kaolin,” “pipe-clay,” or simply “clay;”[30]these masses are, however, not at all of the nature of kaolin, nor are they proper clay, although they may, in places, pass into clay or shale.The material of which this deposit is made up is exceedingly fine-grained, seemingly an impalpable powder, usually perfectly white and more or less distinctly stratified. It is extremely light, and resembles commercial magnesia more than anything else. In its geological position, it is found underlying the basaltic masses, or the products of the last great eruptive action of the Sierra Nevada. It is often associated with, or intercalated among beds of gravel, fine or coarse-grained sandstone and shales, and bears the evident marks of being a sedimentary deposit made along the sides of a gently-descending broad valley, or lake-like expansion of a valley. This is its character in the Sierra Nevada; but as we go north and northeast, and come on to the great volcanic table lands of Northern California and Southern and Eastern Oregon, we find the thickness of the deposits of this kind of material increasing, and the area occupied by them more considerable. The following localities are especially worthy of notice: North of Virginia City, Nevada; Surprise Valley; Pit River, near mouth of Canoe Creek; Klamath Basin, or in the vicinity of Wright, Rhett and Klamath Lakes; the Des Chutes Basin.Of all the localities, the last mentioned would seem to be the most remarkable for the extent and thickness of the deposits in question. It was from here that the first specimens examined by Ehrenberg, in 1849, were brought by Frémont, who represented the deposit as 500 feet thick. This region has since been examined by Dr. Newberry, who describes the cañons of the tributaries of the Des Chutes as in places 2,000 feet deep, the plateaux between which cañons are covered by basaltic lava, and this is seen, in the magnificent sections thus presented, to rest on a thickness of hundreds of feet of tufaceous strata interstratified with a variety of beds of volcanic conglomerates, pumice sand, ashes, etc. Dr. Newberry speaks of tufaceous strata 1,200 feet in thickness, in the cañon near the mouth of the Mptolyas River.The white material, of which some of the more prominent localities have been indicated above, and which is well known to explorers under so many names, as already mentioned, is in reality chiefly of a silicious character, and made up, to a large extent, of organic bodies of microscopic dimensions, infusoria, orDiatomaceæ. This fact was first recognized in the case of the specimens collected by Frémont on the Des Chutes River, and examined by Bailey and Ehrenberg. Specimens collected by Dr. Newberry, on the Pacific Railroad Survey, were also examined by Professor Bailey, but I am not aware that any detailed description of the results was ever published.Among the collection of the Geological Survey are a large number of specimens of the white infusorial deposit, underlying the lava at various localities. Of these a preliminary examination has been made by Professor Brewer, and a large supply of material is now in the hands of Mr. A. M. Edwards, of New York, for a detailed examination and report. The fact has been already well demonstrated that all or nearly all these fine, white, light masses are made up, to a large extent, of the silicious remains of thediatomaceæ, and in all cases of forms peculiar to fresh water. The geological position of these beds is extremely recent. They extend from the latter portion of the Pliocene into thePost-pliocene epoch, and seem to have continued their existence nearly, if not quite, down to the present day.So far the facts are very simple, and the principal results of our detailed microscopic examination of these infusorial deposits will be, the knowledge of the range of the different species which occur in them, and the relations of the various forms to those now living, either in this region or in other parts of the world. This the extent of our collections will give us better opportunities to do than others have yet had.There is a point, however, of great interest connected with these deposits, in regard to which I desire to make some remarks at this present time, and on which I consider that our explorations are capable of throwing some light.Ehrenberg has recently[31]examined a specimen collected many years ago, in the Toluca Valley, Mexico, by the well-known mining engineer Burkart, of what he denominates a “Phytolitharien Tuff” or phytolithic tufa, and which came to him labeled “Trachytic Tufa, from Toluca Valley,quere, whether pumice-like or infusorial.” Of this, Ehrenberg says: “It is a silver-gray, easily crumbled, gritty tufa, which does not effervesce with acids, and which, when heated, becomes darker, but not black, and then assumes a light-brownish color.” The microscopic analysis of it showed that it was made up to a large extent of phytolitharia, which probably belong chiefly to the grasses, and between them lie scattered a comparatively small number of bacillaria. All are fresh-water forms.In his remarks on this material, Ehrenberg recalls the other specimens of infusorial tufas, which have been examined by him, at various times, since 1839. He mentions particularly the rock from the Des Chutes River, collected by Frémont; also trachytic tufa, with organic remains, from Honduras; trachytic tufa from the volcano Maibu, in Chile; the mud-ejections (?) of the volcanoes near Quito; the ejections (?) of the volcano Imbabaru, as well as those from the island of Guadaloupe.In regard to the Des Chutes River deposit, it may be incidentally remarked that the eminent microscopist seems to assign to it a much greater geological age than it really deserves; it is, unquestionably, as recent as the latter part of the Pliocene.It would appear from what Ehrenberg has published, that he considers this occurrence of organic forms, in connection with reputed volcanic masses, to be something extremely difficult to explain, as indeed it is, if we adopt the view taken by him, namely, that these so-called tufaceous materials are the direct products of volcanic action; that is to say, that they have been ejected from craters, either in the form of showers of ashes or of mud out-flows. It would be, indeed, to my comprehension, something entirely inexplicable, that such vast masses of matter, made up to a large extent of organic forms, should be poured forth from the interior of the earth. This would be the case, as it appears to me, no matter what theory of volcanic action one might choose to adopt; since, whatever may be the cause, no one will deny that a high temperature is, at least, one of the results. That Ehrenberg really considers these infusorialdeposits to be of eruptive origin, is evident from a remark in his last communication, (that in reference to the specimen from the Toluca Valley) to the effect that the occurrence of fresh-water forms, exclusively, in these infusorial masses is evidence that volcanic phenomena are not dependent on, or connected with, the presence of sea-water, as is generally supposed, from the fact that volcanoes are situated, in most cases, near the sea coast.Not having the necessary works of reference at hand to be able to see, in all the cases cited by Ehrenberg, exactly what the evidence is, on which his theory of the origin of these infusorial deposits is founded, I will not attempt to give an authoritative statement in regard to any others than those which belong to this coast; but I cannot avoid drawing the inference, that the same conditions which are so easily traced here will, on future examination, be found existing in all the other localities cited by him.The mode of occurrence of these fresh-water infusorial deposits in California, and on the Pacific coast in general, is very simple. They are accumulations of organisms which have been collected at the bottom of the lakes, or in the lake-like shallow expansions of rivers, in which they grew. This growth took place at a time when volcanic agencies were busily at work, giving rise to accumulations of ashes, pumice, and other materials. The rapidity with which these infusorial deposits form, at the present time even, the vast extent over which they are distributed, and the general importance in the geological history of the earth, are now matters which are well understood, of the masses thus accumulated and in regard to which the store of facts has been rapidly growing in magnitude during the past few years. The mud deposits and deltas of rivers, the bottoms of lakes and swamps, and the bed of the ocean itself, are the repositories of these forms. Heat and stagnant water seem to be what is required for their rapid reproduction and the consequent rapid accumulation of their remains.The infusorial deposits of Central California—I refer now to those of fresh water origin, and connected with volcanic masses—are all situated in such positions as to show, that they were formed and deposited in shallow water; that, through the various alternations of calm and convulsion in the Sierra, they were at one time allowed to accumulate in quiet, then swept over by masses of gravel and sand, indicating a furious rush of water, then covered with a shower of ashes and pumice from the neighboring volcanoes of the Sierra then in active operation; and finally, at the grand finale of the basaltic lava overflow of the chain, capped with this indestructible material, which has effectually prevented the washing away of the otherwise easily removed infusorial deposits. This is the connection between the volcanic and the infusorial masses; by their absolute indestructibility the former have protected the latter from denudation, and consequently we see them always accompanying each other: for where the cover did not exist, there the denuding forces have swept away every vestige of the soft and easily yielding material, or else it remains concealed under the water. To form an idea of the extent of the erosion which has taken place since these infusorial beds were deposited, and the consequent change in the configuration of the country, we must bear in mind that the whole of the present river cañons on the west slope of the Sierra have been excavated since that time, and that, inmany places, the strata have been removed to a vertical depth of between two and three thousand feet.Everything shows that the surface covered by fresh water in the region east of the crest of the Sierra was, at a not very distant epoch, much greater in extent than it now is. There existed, probably during or immediately after the glacial epoch, a chain of great lakes occupying a large portion of the country from Walker’s Lake to the Des Chutes River, a distance of about four hundred miles, and extending over a breadth of not less than one hundred. A large portion of this region is now a volcanic plateau; and, where cut into by the force of running water, the deposits of infusorial strata may be seen, sometimes thin and unimportant, but often of great thickness. Observations and measurements of terraces and determination of the altitude of all these old lake deposits will enable us at some future time to indicate on the map the area once occupied by this great chain of inland seas. The vast extent of the lacustrine infusorial formations on the east side of the Sierra is thus accounted for, as well as the comparatively small area which they cover on the western slope.In addition to the stratigraphical reason given above why the infusorial strata should occur connected with eruptive masses, there may be a chemical one which shall, in part, account for the apparent great development of thediatomaceæin volcanic regions. These organisms require an amount of silica, infinitesimally small for each individual, but in reality enormous for the number of organisms required to develop themselves over the vast area and with the thickness which they occupy. That a volcanic region should supply a larger amount of silica in the state in which it can be appropriated by thediatomaceæ, is extremely probable. We know that silicification of all organic matters occurring in these volcanic regions of our coast proceeds with the greatest rapidity, and has taken place on an extensive scale. The thermal springs contain a great amount of free silica, and it is in the vicinity of such springs that large infusorial deposits are frequently found. It seems that it could only be in regions particularly favorable for the secretion of their silicious coverings, that these infusoria could be accumulated with such rapidity as to form what may be called, without exaggeration, mountain masses. It is also possible that temperature may have something to do with this rapid development, and that volcanic regions may on this account be favorable to it.To my apprehension, the phenomena of infusorial deposits in connection with volcanic masses admit of an easy explanation on this coast, at least; and I can hardly believe that any of the localities ofdiatomaceæ, if closely examined, would present any such difficulties as to make the assumption necessary that they have been ejected from the interior of the earth. In cases where infusoria seem to have been actually ejected from craters, as is said to have been the case in some of the South American volcanoes, it is not difficult to understand that an ancient crater may have become filled up and temporarily converted into a lake; and that, after the growth and deposition of an infusorial deposit at the bottom, a new eruption may have broken out in the same place as a previous one, or in its immediate neighborhood. In such a case, among the ejected material, a large quantity of the infusoria would be found mingled with the ashes,which must pass through the material collected in the bottom of the crater as they rise from the interior of the earth. The bursting of lakes at the bases of volcanic cones, caused by the rapid melting of the snows above them, have often given rise to torrents of volcanic mud, called “Moya” in South America, in which both animal and vegetable remains are often inclosed in great quantity; but the connection between the organic and inorganic phenomena, in such cases, is perfectly evident.In fact, I see no reason for suspecting any connection between the infusorial deposits and the volcanic masses of this coast, or of any other part of the world, which should influence the geologist in forming an opinion with regard to the cause or the locality of volcanic action.In conclusion, it may be remarked that the marine infusorial rocks of the Pacific coast, and especially of California, are of great extent and importance. They occur in the Coast Ranges, from Clear Lake to Los Angeles. They are of no little economical, as well as scientific, interest; since, as I conceive, the existence of bituminous materials in this State, in all their forms, from the most liquid to the most dense, is due to the presence of infusoria—the proofs of which statement I will, at some future time, endeavor to set before the Academy.[30]They are also frequently called “magnesia,” and have been repeatedly stated by “assayers” in San Francisco to be made up of that earth.[31]See Monatsbericht der Kön. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1866, page 158.
BY J. D. WHITNEY.
The microscopic discoveries of the last few years have immensely extended the range and importance of the minute, and, to the naked eye, invisible organisms, which, under the general designation of “Infusoria,” are recognized as a part of the kingdom of nature. It is especially to Ehrenberg that we are indebted for a demonstration of the geological importance of the Diatoms, those microscopic organisms which so long puzzled naturalists to decide whether they were animal or vegetable in their nature, but which are now, by the majority of zoölogists, referred to as plants. In Ehrenberg’s great work, the “Mikrogeologie,” or geology in little, this eminent naturalist has given the results of the examination, by himself, of specimens of infusorial rocks, soils, ashes, dust, and other accumulations or masses of matter from every quarter of the globe: these investigations show most conclusively that deposits of vast extent—of such magnitude, indeed, as to form no inconsiderable portion of the earth’s crust—are the result of organic agencies, and that what seems to the eye an unorganized mass, may in reality be made up of the delicately wrought and almost infinitely minute remains of plant or animal life.
That animals, or plants, so minute that a hundred millions of distinct individuals will scarcely weigh a single grain, should form accumulations hundreds of feet in thickness and extending over thousands of square miles, seems a hardly credible statement; but a fact still more difficult to believe and comprehend is one which is thoroughly established by abundant evidence, namely: that immense deposits of volcanic materials, or, at least, of materials closely connected in their origin and nature with volcanic action, and spread over vast tracts of country in different parts of the world, are also, to a large extent, made up of these microscopic organisms, the existence of which seems dependent on the presence of water, and so utterly at variance with a condition of volcanic activity.
Throughout this volcanic region of California, Oregon, Nevada, and probably as far north as the igneous masses extend, which are well known to cover a vast area on the western side of our continent, there are found deposits, which are usually called “fire-clay,” “kaolin,” “pipe-clay,” or simply “clay;”[30]these masses are, however, not at all of the nature of kaolin, nor are they proper clay, although they may, in places, pass into clay or shale.
The material of which this deposit is made up is exceedingly fine-grained, seemingly an impalpable powder, usually perfectly white and more or less distinctly stratified. It is extremely light, and resembles commercial magnesia more than anything else. In its geological position, it is found underlying the basaltic masses, or the products of the last great eruptive action of the Sierra Nevada. It is often associated with, or intercalated among beds of gravel, fine or coarse-grained sandstone and shales, and bears the evident marks of being a sedimentary deposit made along the sides of a gently-descending broad valley, or lake-like expansion of a valley. This is its character in the Sierra Nevada; but as we go north and northeast, and come on to the great volcanic table lands of Northern California and Southern and Eastern Oregon, we find the thickness of the deposits of this kind of material increasing, and the area occupied by them more considerable. The following localities are especially worthy of notice: North of Virginia City, Nevada; Surprise Valley; Pit River, near mouth of Canoe Creek; Klamath Basin, or in the vicinity of Wright, Rhett and Klamath Lakes; the Des Chutes Basin.
Of all the localities, the last mentioned would seem to be the most remarkable for the extent and thickness of the deposits in question. It was from here that the first specimens examined by Ehrenberg, in 1849, were brought by Frémont, who represented the deposit as 500 feet thick. This region has since been examined by Dr. Newberry, who describes the cañons of the tributaries of the Des Chutes as in places 2,000 feet deep, the plateaux between which cañons are covered by basaltic lava, and this is seen, in the magnificent sections thus presented, to rest on a thickness of hundreds of feet of tufaceous strata interstratified with a variety of beds of volcanic conglomerates, pumice sand, ashes, etc. Dr. Newberry speaks of tufaceous strata 1,200 feet in thickness, in the cañon near the mouth of the Mptolyas River.
The white material, of which some of the more prominent localities have been indicated above, and which is well known to explorers under so many names, as already mentioned, is in reality chiefly of a silicious character, and made up, to a large extent, of organic bodies of microscopic dimensions, infusoria, orDiatomaceæ. This fact was first recognized in the case of the specimens collected by Frémont on the Des Chutes River, and examined by Bailey and Ehrenberg. Specimens collected by Dr. Newberry, on the Pacific Railroad Survey, were also examined by Professor Bailey, but I am not aware that any detailed description of the results was ever published.
Among the collection of the Geological Survey are a large number of specimens of the white infusorial deposit, underlying the lava at various localities. Of these a preliminary examination has been made by Professor Brewer, and a large supply of material is now in the hands of Mr. A. M. Edwards, of New York, for a detailed examination and report. The fact has been already well demonstrated that all or nearly all these fine, white, light masses are made up, to a large extent, of the silicious remains of thediatomaceæ, and in all cases of forms peculiar to fresh water. The geological position of these beds is extremely recent. They extend from the latter portion of the Pliocene into thePost-pliocene epoch, and seem to have continued their existence nearly, if not quite, down to the present day.
So far the facts are very simple, and the principal results of our detailed microscopic examination of these infusorial deposits will be, the knowledge of the range of the different species which occur in them, and the relations of the various forms to those now living, either in this region or in other parts of the world. This the extent of our collections will give us better opportunities to do than others have yet had.
There is a point, however, of great interest connected with these deposits, in regard to which I desire to make some remarks at this present time, and on which I consider that our explorations are capable of throwing some light.
Ehrenberg has recently[31]examined a specimen collected many years ago, in the Toluca Valley, Mexico, by the well-known mining engineer Burkart, of what he denominates a “Phytolitharien Tuff” or phytolithic tufa, and which came to him labeled “Trachytic Tufa, from Toluca Valley,quere, whether pumice-like or infusorial.” Of this, Ehrenberg says: “It is a silver-gray, easily crumbled, gritty tufa, which does not effervesce with acids, and which, when heated, becomes darker, but not black, and then assumes a light-brownish color.” The microscopic analysis of it showed that it was made up to a large extent of phytolitharia, which probably belong chiefly to the grasses, and between them lie scattered a comparatively small number of bacillaria. All are fresh-water forms.
In his remarks on this material, Ehrenberg recalls the other specimens of infusorial tufas, which have been examined by him, at various times, since 1839. He mentions particularly the rock from the Des Chutes River, collected by Frémont; also trachytic tufa, with organic remains, from Honduras; trachytic tufa from the volcano Maibu, in Chile; the mud-ejections (?) of the volcanoes near Quito; the ejections (?) of the volcano Imbabaru, as well as those from the island of Guadaloupe.
In regard to the Des Chutes River deposit, it may be incidentally remarked that the eminent microscopist seems to assign to it a much greater geological age than it really deserves; it is, unquestionably, as recent as the latter part of the Pliocene.
It would appear from what Ehrenberg has published, that he considers this occurrence of organic forms, in connection with reputed volcanic masses, to be something extremely difficult to explain, as indeed it is, if we adopt the view taken by him, namely, that these so-called tufaceous materials are the direct products of volcanic action; that is to say, that they have been ejected from craters, either in the form of showers of ashes or of mud out-flows. It would be, indeed, to my comprehension, something entirely inexplicable, that such vast masses of matter, made up to a large extent of organic forms, should be poured forth from the interior of the earth. This would be the case, as it appears to me, no matter what theory of volcanic action one might choose to adopt; since, whatever may be the cause, no one will deny that a high temperature is, at least, one of the results. That Ehrenberg really considers these infusorialdeposits to be of eruptive origin, is evident from a remark in his last communication, (that in reference to the specimen from the Toluca Valley) to the effect that the occurrence of fresh-water forms, exclusively, in these infusorial masses is evidence that volcanic phenomena are not dependent on, or connected with, the presence of sea-water, as is generally supposed, from the fact that volcanoes are situated, in most cases, near the sea coast.
Not having the necessary works of reference at hand to be able to see, in all the cases cited by Ehrenberg, exactly what the evidence is, on which his theory of the origin of these infusorial deposits is founded, I will not attempt to give an authoritative statement in regard to any others than those which belong to this coast; but I cannot avoid drawing the inference, that the same conditions which are so easily traced here will, on future examination, be found existing in all the other localities cited by him.
The mode of occurrence of these fresh-water infusorial deposits in California, and on the Pacific coast in general, is very simple. They are accumulations of organisms which have been collected at the bottom of the lakes, or in the lake-like shallow expansions of rivers, in which they grew. This growth took place at a time when volcanic agencies were busily at work, giving rise to accumulations of ashes, pumice, and other materials. The rapidity with which these infusorial deposits form, at the present time even, the vast extent over which they are distributed, and the general importance in the geological history of the earth, are now matters which are well understood, of the masses thus accumulated and in regard to which the store of facts has been rapidly growing in magnitude during the past few years. The mud deposits and deltas of rivers, the bottoms of lakes and swamps, and the bed of the ocean itself, are the repositories of these forms. Heat and stagnant water seem to be what is required for their rapid reproduction and the consequent rapid accumulation of their remains.
The infusorial deposits of Central California—I refer now to those of fresh water origin, and connected with volcanic masses—are all situated in such positions as to show, that they were formed and deposited in shallow water; that, through the various alternations of calm and convulsion in the Sierra, they were at one time allowed to accumulate in quiet, then swept over by masses of gravel and sand, indicating a furious rush of water, then covered with a shower of ashes and pumice from the neighboring volcanoes of the Sierra then in active operation; and finally, at the grand finale of the basaltic lava overflow of the chain, capped with this indestructible material, which has effectually prevented the washing away of the otherwise easily removed infusorial deposits. This is the connection between the volcanic and the infusorial masses; by their absolute indestructibility the former have protected the latter from denudation, and consequently we see them always accompanying each other: for where the cover did not exist, there the denuding forces have swept away every vestige of the soft and easily yielding material, or else it remains concealed under the water. To form an idea of the extent of the erosion which has taken place since these infusorial beds were deposited, and the consequent change in the configuration of the country, we must bear in mind that the whole of the present river cañons on the west slope of the Sierra have been excavated since that time, and that, inmany places, the strata have been removed to a vertical depth of between two and three thousand feet.
Everything shows that the surface covered by fresh water in the region east of the crest of the Sierra was, at a not very distant epoch, much greater in extent than it now is. There existed, probably during or immediately after the glacial epoch, a chain of great lakes occupying a large portion of the country from Walker’s Lake to the Des Chutes River, a distance of about four hundred miles, and extending over a breadth of not less than one hundred. A large portion of this region is now a volcanic plateau; and, where cut into by the force of running water, the deposits of infusorial strata may be seen, sometimes thin and unimportant, but often of great thickness. Observations and measurements of terraces and determination of the altitude of all these old lake deposits will enable us at some future time to indicate on the map the area once occupied by this great chain of inland seas. The vast extent of the lacustrine infusorial formations on the east side of the Sierra is thus accounted for, as well as the comparatively small area which they cover on the western slope.
In addition to the stratigraphical reason given above why the infusorial strata should occur connected with eruptive masses, there may be a chemical one which shall, in part, account for the apparent great development of thediatomaceæin volcanic regions. These organisms require an amount of silica, infinitesimally small for each individual, but in reality enormous for the number of organisms required to develop themselves over the vast area and with the thickness which they occupy. That a volcanic region should supply a larger amount of silica in the state in which it can be appropriated by thediatomaceæ, is extremely probable. We know that silicification of all organic matters occurring in these volcanic regions of our coast proceeds with the greatest rapidity, and has taken place on an extensive scale. The thermal springs contain a great amount of free silica, and it is in the vicinity of such springs that large infusorial deposits are frequently found. It seems that it could only be in regions particularly favorable for the secretion of their silicious coverings, that these infusoria could be accumulated with such rapidity as to form what may be called, without exaggeration, mountain masses. It is also possible that temperature may have something to do with this rapid development, and that volcanic regions may on this account be favorable to it.
To my apprehension, the phenomena of infusorial deposits in connection with volcanic masses admit of an easy explanation on this coast, at least; and I can hardly believe that any of the localities ofdiatomaceæ, if closely examined, would present any such difficulties as to make the assumption necessary that they have been ejected from the interior of the earth. In cases where infusoria seem to have been actually ejected from craters, as is said to have been the case in some of the South American volcanoes, it is not difficult to understand that an ancient crater may have become filled up and temporarily converted into a lake; and that, after the growth and deposition of an infusorial deposit at the bottom, a new eruption may have broken out in the same place as a previous one, or in its immediate neighborhood. In such a case, among the ejected material, a large quantity of the infusoria would be found mingled with the ashes,which must pass through the material collected in the bottom of the crater as they rise from the interior of the earth. The bursting of lakes at the bases of volcanic cones, caused by the rapid melting of the snows above them, have often given rise to torrents of volcanic mud, called “Moya” in South America, in which both animal and vegetable remains are often inclosed in great quantity; but the connection between the organic and inorganic phenomena, in such cases, is perfectly evident.
In fact, I see no reason for suspecting any connection between the infusorial deposits and the volcanic masses of this coast, or of any other part of the world, which should influence the geologist in forming an opinion with regard to the cause or the locality of volcanic action.
In conclusion, it may be remarked that the marine infusorial rocks of the Pacific coast, and especially of California, are of great extent and importance. They occur in the Coast Ranges, from Clear Lake to Los Angeles. They are of no little economical, as well as scientific, interest; since, as I conceive, the existence of bituminous materials in this State, in all their forms, from the most liquid to the most dense, is due to the presence of infusoria—the proofs of which statement I will, at some future time, endeavor to set before the Academy.
[30]They are also frequently called “magnesia,” and have been repeatedly stated by “assayers” in San Francisco to be made up of that earth.[31]See Monatsbericht der Kön. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1866, page 158.
[30]They are also frequently called “magnesia,” and have been repeatedly stated by “assayers” in San Francisco to be made up of that earth.
[30]They are also frequently called “magnesia,” and have been repeatedly stated by “assayers” in San Francisco to be made up of that earth.
[31]See Monatsbericht der Kön. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1866, page 158.
[31]See Monatsbericht der Kön. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1866, page 158.
Dr. Kellogg read a paper on “Fungi,” in which he gave a full account of their nature, distribution, and uses.
Mr. Lorquin exhibited two ducks, and made some remarks in regard to them. One of them he considered a hybrid between the Pintail and the Mallard, and the other between the Pintail and the Teal.
Mr. Falkenau gave an account of the chemical reactions of the red matter exhibited by Dr. Behr to the Academy, at the meeting of January 7th. The quantity was too small for a satisfactory result.
Dr. Stivers made some remarks on theNereocystes Lütkeana, one of the Algæ, and remarkable for its absorptive power.
President in the Chair.
Twenty-five members present.
Messrs. I. W. Raymond, Rodmond Gibbons, Thomas H. Selby, Daniel Knight, F. A. Holman, M. D., Edmund Scott, Henry Edwards, John Melville, George Daly, Robinson Gibbons, GregoryYale, James Howden, George H. Fillmore, Marshall Hastings, John L. Eckley and Lee J. Ransom were elected Resident Members, and J. G. Cooper, M.D., a Life Member.
Donation to the Cabinet: A skull of a California Indian, taken from a burial place in Alameda County, near Centreville, by Mr. L. G. Yates.
Donation to the Library: The Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal for 1865 and 1866, by Dr. H. Gibbons.
Prof. W. P. Blake read the following communication:
Notice of Fossil Elephants’ Teeth from the Northwest Coast.BY W. P. BLAKE.The two molar teeth of the extinct elephant which I exhibit this evening were presented to me by Col. Bulkley, Superintendent of the American and Russian Telegraph. One is from the mouth of the Yukon River, and the other from St. Paul’s Island, near the middle of Behring’s Sea. The remains of elephants are abundant in both places. Tusks are sometimes found, and one has been sent by Col. Bulkley to the Smithsonian Institution. These new localities may be regarded as forming a connecting link between those of Siberia and America, and indicate the former continuous distribution of the ancient elephant upon the two continents.The following list of localities, known to me, of similar fossils in California, will show that the elephant must have been frequently seen here in very early times: At Mare Island; in Placer County, near Forest Hill; in Tuolumne County, at Columbia, Shaw’s Flat, Texas Flat and near Sonora; in Calaveras County, at Knight’s Ferry; in Los Angeles County, at San Pedro. The last is, I believe, the most southern point at which such remains have been found in this State.
BY W. P. BLAKE.
The two molar teeth of the extinct elephant which I exhibit this evening were presented to me by Col. Bulkley, Superintendent of the American and Russian Telegraph. One is from the mouth of the Yukon River, and the other from St. Paul’s Island, near the middle of Behring’s Sea. The remains of elephants are abundant in both places. Tusks are sometimes found, and one has been sent by Col. Bulkley to the Smithsonian Institution. These new localities may be regarded as forming a connecting link between those of Siberia and America, and indicate the former continuous distribution of the ancient elephant upon the two continents.
The following list of localities, known to me, of similar fossils in California, will show that the elephant must have been frequently seen here in very early times: At Mare Island; in Placer County, near Forest Hill; in Tuolumne County, at Columbia, Shaw’s Flat, Texas Flat and near Sonora; in Calaveras County, at Knight’s Ferry; in Los Angeles County, at San Pedro. The last is, I believe, the most southern point at which such remains have been found in this State.
Mr. Falkenau read a paper on Peat, in which he gave an account of the origin, distribution and uses of this material. In the discussion which followed the reading of this communication, it was stated by Mr. Bolander that no valuable beds of peat had yet been discovered on this coast. Messrs. Keyes and Behr also commented on supposed discoveries of this material in California. The peculiar climate of this region was noticed as unfavorable to the development of this material.
Dr. H. Gibbon made some remarks on the simultaneity of storms on both sides of this continent.
Prof. Whitney made some remarks supplementary to his communication to the Academy in 1862, on the question—“Which is thehighest mountain in the United States, and which in North America?”
He remarked that but little had been done, outside of California, during the last five years, towards improving our knowledge of the topography of the western part of our continent. Some valuable contributions to the physical geography of the central portion of the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains, have been published by Drs. C. C. Parry and Engelmann in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, (1863 and 1866) and several peaks were measured by Dr. Parry; but of these only two are located on any map, namely: Long’s and Pike’s. Of these Long’s Peak is 13,456 feet, and Pike’s, 14,215; this latter being the highest summit in the Rocky Mountain range, at least within the borders of our own territory. Of the continuation of the Rocky Mountains north into British Columbia, but little is known. Some peaks are said to be 16,000 feet and over in height; but it is believed that no accurate measurements have been made in that region; and, further, it is not at all in accordance with what we have learned of the relation of peaks to passes in other mountain chains, to suppose that when the passes are as low as 5,000 feet, the mountains on either hand should rise to an altitude of 16,000 feet. This would be more probable were the high points volcanic cones; but this they are not supposed to be. Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle’s book, recently published, gives no information as to the height of the peaks near the pass traversed by their party, (the Leather Head Pass) except a statement that one point, far exceeding all others in elevation, was “from 10,000 to 15,000 feet high.”Professor Whitney referred again to the fact that the height of Mt. St. Elias, as given on the British Admiralty charts, and probably from Sir Edward Belcher’s measurement, namely, 14,970 feet, was still ignored by all compilers of gazetteers and geographies, even down to Ansted’s latest work, published in 1867. The old figures, 17,854 feet, obtained from an old Spanish document found in Mexico by Humboldt, have been shown to be grossly exaggerated by two separate measurements of more modern times.The recent measurement of Mt. Hood by Mr. A. Wood, was mentioned, and several reasons given why little weight should be attached to it. If Mr. Wood’s measurement were correct, the height of Mt. Hood must be nearly 4,000 feet greater than that of Mt. Shasta, and so notable a fact would have been clearly recognized by explorers, as it always has been that Mt. Shasta itself is nearly that much higher than Lassen’s Peak. But, on the other hand, experienced observers have stated that Mt. Hood was not as high as Mt. Shasta, nor as Mt. Adams, or Mt. Rainier, this last-named peak being, according to Wilkes, only 12,300 feet. Again, Mt. Hood was roughly measured by Dr. Vansant, and his result (11,934 feet) gives the height of that mountain as less than that of Mt. Adams, also measured by him with the same instrument, and this instrument could hardly have been so rough and liable to error as the one employed by Mr. Wood. Further, this last-named gentleman gives the limit of forest vegetation on Mt. Hood as 9,000 feet, while our careful observations on Mt. Shasta place it on that mountain, at 8,000 feet. It is certainly contrary to whatwe have everywhere on this coast observed, to suppose that the limit to which arboreal growth reaches, should not fall considerably in going north three hundred miles, rather than rise 1,000 feet, as would be the case if Mr. Wood’s measurements were correct. Finally, that Mr. Wood’s figures are not very reliable is shown by the fact, that on plotting his estimates of distances traveled and the angles of the slopes as given by him, it was found that, to correspond with his statements, the mountain must be no less than 33,400 feet high.Finally, Professor Whitney concluded that we have as yet no satisfactory evidence to invalidate the statement previously made by him, that we have in California the highest mountains in the United States, and the grandest and largest mountain mass in North America, although one or two of the volcanic cones of Mexico rise to higher altitudes than any of our peaks.
He remarked that but little had been done, outside of California, during the last five years, towards improving our knowledge of the topography of the western part of our continent. Some valuable contributions to the physical geography of the central portion of the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains, have been published by Drs. C. C. Parry and Engelmann in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, (1863 and 1866) and several peaks were measured by Dr. Parry; but of these only two are located on any map, namely: Long’s and Pike’s. Of these Long’s Peak is 13,456 feet, and Pike’s, 14,215; this latter being the highest summit in the Rocky Mountain range, at least within the borders of our own territory. Of the continuation of the Rocky Mountains north into British Columbia, but little is known. Some peaks are said to be 16,000 feet and over in height; but it is believed that no accurate measurements have been made in that region; and, further, it is not at all in accordance with what we have learned of the relation of peaks to passes in other mountain chains, to suppose that when the passes are as low as 5,000 feet, the mountains on either hand should rise to an altitude of 16,000 feet. This would be more probable were the high points volcanic cones; but this they are not supposed to be. Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle’s book, recently published, gives no information as to the height of the peaks near the pass traversed by their party, (the Leather Head Pass) except a statement that one point, far exceeding all others in elevation, was “from 10,000 to 15,000 feet high.”
Professor Whitney referred again to the fact that the height of Mt. St. Elias, as given on the British Admiralty charts, and probably from Sir Edward Belcher’s measurement, namely, 14,970 feet, was still ignored by all compilers of gazetteers and geographies, even down to Ansted’s latest work, published in 1867. The old figures, 17,854 feet, obtained from an old Spanish document found in Mexico by Humboldt, have been shown to be grossly exaggerated by two separate measurements of more modern times.
The recent measurement of Mt. Hood by Mr. A. Wood, was mentioned, and several reasons given why little weight should be attached to it. If Mr. Wood’s measurement were correct, the height of Mt. Hood must be nearly 4,000 feet greater than that of Mt. Shasta, and so notable a fact would have been clearly recognized by explorers, as it always has been that Mt. Shasta itself is nearly that much higher than Lassen’s Peak. But, on the other hand, experienced observers have stated that Mt. Hood was not as high as Mt. Shasta, nor as Mt. Adams, or Mt. Rainier, this last-named peak being, according to Wilkes, only 12,300 feet. Again, Mt. Hood was roughly measured by Dr. Vansant, and his result (11,934 feet) gives the height of that mountain as less than that of Mt. Adams, also measured by him with the same instrument, and this instrument could hardly have been so rough and liable to error as the one employed by Mr. Wood. Further, this last-named gentleman gives the limit of forest vegetation on Mt. Hood as 9,000 feet, while our careful observations on Mt. Shasta place it on that mountain, at 8,000 feet. It is certainly contrary to whatwe have everywhere on this coast observed, to suppose that the limit to which arboreal growth reaches, should not fall considerably in going north three hundred miles, rather than rise 1,000 feet, as would be the case if Mr. Wood’s measurements were correct. Finally, that Mr. Wood’s figures are not very reliable is shown by the fact, that on plotting his estimates of distances traveled and the angles of the slopes as given by him, it was found that, to correspond with his statements, the mountain must be no less than 33,400 feet high.
Finally, Professor Whitney concluded that we have as yet no satisfactory evidence to invalidate the statement previously made by him, that we have in California the highest mountains in the United States, and the grandest and largest mountain mass in North America, although one or two of the volcanic cones of Mexico rise to higher altitudes than any of our peaks.
Prof. Whitney also exhibited one of the short barometers made for the Geological Survey, by James Green, of New York. Having had occasion to work at high elevations—the party being sometimes, for weeks together, camped at from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea—it has been found that the vacuum in the ordinary barometer tubes soon becomes deteriorated, and the mercury dirty from the constant lowering and raising of the column, which is required when a large number of observations are taken at so great an elevation. By having the barometer tube made only long enough to commence the reading at about twenty-four inches, or at an elevation of 6,000 or 7,000 feet, the difficulty above specified is to a great degree avoided, and the instrument made much more portable and convenient to carry, especially on peaks so steep that both hands are needed to aid in climbing. Two of these short barometers have been used in the high mountain work of the California Survey, and found extremely convenient. Of course the short barometer must be compared with a long one at some station camp of sufficiently great elevation to allow this to be done.
Dr. Gibbons made some remarks on the inferior quality of the macadamizing material employed in this city. He inquired if any person knew of the existence of any better stone for this purpose, in the vicinity of San Francisco. Prof. Whitney replied that an excellent basaltic rock was to be had in great abundance near Petaluma, at a point convenient for shipment, and that there was no really valuable rock for macadamizing to be had nearer than this point.
President in the Chair.
Twenty-nine members present.
Messrs. J. M. Sibley, William Norris, Henry Pickel, John W. Nystrom, Ross E. Brown, Cornelius B. Miller and Theodore P. Painter were elected Resident Members.
Donations to the Cabinet: “Electro-Silicon,” (Infusorial Silica) from Six-Mile Cañon, near Virginia City, Nevada, from Dr. Lanszweert; Fossil Fruit, from Long Valley, Mendocino County, from C. Beottie; Fossil Shells, from the line of the Erie (Steuben County, N. Y.) Railroad, by A. T. Beardsley; Magnesium Wire, by C. Z. Wilson; Fragment from the “Pyramid of Cheops,” by Mr. Elliott; Two Specimens of Petrified Wood, from Sonoma County, Package of Coffee Seed and Specimen of Nest of Trap-Door Spider, from Dr. Kellogg.
Prof. Whitney announced the death of Alexander Dallas Bache, and read a notice of his life and eminent scientific services.
Mr. Stearns read the following communication, prefacing it with some remarks on the hibernation and æstivation of land shells: