FOOTNOTES:[1]The whole of the table-land in the neighbourhood of Cyrene, as well as that upon which the city was built, may probably have been called Irasa, and the fountain of Theste may reasonably be imagined to have been that which we have formerly mentioned at Gobba, where remains of antiquity still exist. We are led to this conclusion, from the nature of the ground in the neighbourhood of the fountain in question; for it is there that the table-land ceases altogether, and the Cyrenaic range descends so abruptly as to be in most places inaccessible. We have mentioned the difficulty which we ourselves experienced in leading our horses down one of the passes near Derna, considered, of course, to be a practicable one; and can readily imagine the disadvantage which an army would labour under in having so formidable a barrier to surmount, as any of the passes alluded to would present; in front of an enemy whose lines were drawn up on the summit of the range, and on the edge of the ascent by which they were advancing.This position in fact is one, of all others, which would naturally be selected as a line of defence against forces advancing from Derna and Egypt; and the Greeks would hardly have neglected to avail themselves of it, supposing them to be at all acquainted with the country, which can hardly be doubted at the period in question, after so long a residence on the mountain.[2]This army is said by Herodotus to have penetrated farther to the westward; and the historian believes (what is extremely probable) that the Persians had views on other parts of Libya, besides that possessed by the people of Barca; and that the army of Amasis was intended to reconnoitre the country, if not to reduce it to subjection.[3]Many pointed observations are recorded of Aristippus the elder, who appears to have possessed a very lively wit. He asked a certain person, who reproached him for having given a sumptuous entertainment—whether he would not have been equally hospitable if it would only have cost him three oboli? When the other replied in the affirmative, Aristippus observed, “It is you then, I find, who are fond of money, and not I of pleasure.” Dionysius once sent him three beautiful women, from which the philosopher was desired to select whichever pleased him most; but Aristippus retained them all three; observing that “Paris had greatly suffered by preferring one goddess to another.” When some one inquired what Aristippus would expect for the education of his son, he answered five hundred drachmas. “I can buy a slave,” replied the other, “for that money.” “Do so,” said Aristippus, “and then you will have two.”[4]The name of Bĭrāsa will naturally suggest a resemblance between it and Irāsa, the country which is mentioned by Herodotus as that to which the Greeks were conducted by the natives of Libya. We do not mean to infer, that the place first mentioned has any other connexion with the territory upon which Cyrene was erected, than that which we are going to suggest; but if the affinity of the Arabic and Hebrew, or Chaldee, to the old Phœnician, or Samaritan language, (an early dialect of the Hebrew,) be really so great as is generally allowed, the two words in question may bear the same meaning without any forced application. The wordrāsin Arabic, and in Hebrew, signifies a head; and the term is constantly applied by the Arabs to high and mountainous ground, whether inland or on the coast: land on the summit of a mountain may therefore be said to be—bi-rās—upon the head, or high ground; andbi-rās-awould signify, in Arabic, as it does in the case of the territory in question—a tract of land on the upper part of a range of hills—and might be applied without any impropriety to a similar tract of land of whatever extent. It is not, perhaps, improbable thatrāshad the same meaning among the Libyan tribes, (whom we may suppose to have spoken some dialect of the old Phœnician,) as it bears in Arabic and Hebrew; and that the particlebiorbe, was at the same time used by the Libyans, in the sense which belongs to it in those languages. Irāsa might then be supposed to mean a tract of table land; for the loss of the letterbis of little importance, considering that the word comes through a Greek medium; and as the Greeks in the case alluded to were conducted from the low ground to the high, such an application is far from improbable. It is not, however, necessary for this application to insist upon the omission of theb; for theiin Irāsa might well be a contraction of the articleeloril, signifyingthe, andI-rāsabe pronounced forel-rāsa, which is consistent with the usual pronunciation of Arabic and other Oriental languages. The whole would then be taken for a part; and the country which the Greeks were recommended to inhabit, would be termed—the summit of the mountain—and in the Libyan dialect (let us suppose) Ir’rāsa, or Er’-rāsa.[5]We have not been able to publish on this occasion (as we believe we have already stated) more than a limited number of plates; so that several to which we have referred have been unavoidably omitted. Some of the drawings, however, will appear in another publication, with others made in Egypt and Nubia; and in that we shall hope to find means of introducing the greater part of what has been omitted.[6]The accuracy to which this method of computing distance may be brought, with proper attention, will be seen on referring to the Table, p. xliv. in the Appendix.
FOOTNOTES:
[1]The whole of the table-land in the neighbourhood of Cyrene, as well as that upon which the city was built, may probably have been called Irasa, and the fountain of Theste may reasonably be imagined to have been that which we have formerly mentioned at Gobba, where remains of antiquity still exist. We are led to this conclusion, from the nature of the ground in the neighbourhood of the fountain in question; for it is there that the table-land ceases altogether, and the Cyrenaic range descends so abruptly as to be in most places inaccessible. We have mentioned the difficulty which we ourselves experienced in leading our horses down one of the passes near Derna, considered, of course, to be a practicable one; and can readily imagine the disadvantage which an army would labour under in having so formidable a barrier to surmount, as any of the passes alluded to would present; in front of an enemy whose lines were drawn up on the summit of the range, and on the edge of the ascent by which they were advancing.This position in fact is one, of all others, which would naturally be selected as a line of defence against forces advancing from Derna and Egypt; and the Greeks would hardly have neglected to avail themselves of it, supposing them to be at all acquainted with the country, which can hardly be doubted at the period in question, after so long a residence on the mountain.
[1]The whole of the table-land in the neighbourhood of Cyrene, as well as that upon which the city was built, may probably have been called Irasa, and the fountain of Theste may reasonably be imagined to have been that which we have formerly mentioned at Gobba, where remains of antiquity still exist. We are led to this conclusion, from the nature of the ground in the neighbourhood of the fountain in question; for it is there that the table-land ceases altogether, and the Cyrenaic range descends so abruptly as to be in most places inaccessible. We have mentioned the difficulty which we ourselves experienced in leading our horses down one of the passes near Derna, considered, of course, to be a practicable one; and can readily imagine the disadvantage which an army would labour under in having so formidable a barrier to surmount, as any of the passes alluded to would present; in front of an enemy whose lines were drawn up on the summit of the range, and on the edge of the ascent by which they were advancing.
This position in fact is one, of all others, which would naturally be selected as a line of defence against forces advancing from Derna and Egypt; and the Greeks would hardly have neglected to avail themselves of it, supposing them to be at all acquainted with the country, which can hardly be doubted at the period in question, after so long a residence on the mountain.
[2]This army is said by Herodotus to have penetrated farther to the westward; and the historian believes (what is extremely probable) that the Persians had views on other parts of Libya, besides that possessed by the people of Barca; and that the army of Amasis was intended to reconnoitre the country, if not to reduce it to subjection.
[2]This army is said by Herodotus to have penetrated farther to the westward; and the historian believes (what is extremely probable) that the Persians had views on other parts of Libya, besides that possessed by the people of Barca; and that the army of Amasis was intended to reconnoitre the country, if not to reduce it to subjection.
[3]Many pointed observations are recorded of Aristippus the elder, who appears to have possessed a very lively wit. He asked a certain person, who reproached him for having given a sumptuous entertainment—whether he would not have been equally hospitable if it would only have cost him three oboli? When the other replied in the affirmative, Aristippus observed, “It is you then, I find, who are fond of money, and not I of pleasure.” Dionysius once sent him three beautiful women, from which the philosopher was desired to select whichever pleased him most; but Aristippus retained them all three; observing that “Paris had greatly suffered by preferring one goddess to another.” When some one inquired what Aristippus would expect for the education of his son, he answered five hundred drachmas. “I can buy a slave,” replied the other, “for that money.” “Do so,” said Aristippus, “and then you will have two.”
[3]Many pointed observations are recorded of Aristippus the elder, who appears to have possessed a very lively wit. He asked a certain person, who reproached him for having given a sumptuous entertainment—whether he would not have been equally hospitable if it would only have cost him three oboli? When the other replied in the affirmative, Aristippus observed, “It is you then, I find, who are fond of money, and not I of pleasure.” Dionysius once sent him three beautiful women, from which the philosopher was desired to select whichever pleased him most; but Aristippus retained them all three; observing that “Paris had greatly suffered by preferring one goddess to another.” When some one inquired what Aristippus would expect for the education of his son, he answered five hundred drachmas. “I can buy a slave,” replied the other, “for that money.” “Do so,” said Aristippus, “and then you will have two.”
[4]The name of Bĭrāsa will naturally suggest a resemblance between it and Irāsa, the country which is mentioned by Herodotus as that to which the Greeks were conducted by the natives of Libya. We do not mean to infer, that the place first mentioned has any other connexion with the territory upon which Cyrene was erected, than that which we are going to suggest; but if the affinity of the Arabic and Hebrew, or Chaldee, to the old Phœnician, or Samaritan language, (an early dialect of the Hebrew,) be really so great as is generally allowed, the two words in question may bear the same meaning without any forced application. The wordrāsin Arabic, and in Hebrew, signifies a head; and the term is constantly applied by the Arabs to high and mountainous ground, whether inland or on the coast: land on the summit of a mountain may therefore be said to be—bi-rās—upon the head, or high ground; andbi-rās-awould signify, in Arabic, as it does in the case of the territory in question—a tract of land on the upper part of a range of hills—and might be applied without any impropriety to a similar tract of land of whatever extent. It is not, perhaps, improbable thatrāshad the same meaning among the Libyan tribes, (whom we may suppose to have spoken some dialect of the old Phœnician,) as it bears in Arabic and Hebrew; and that the particlebiorbe, was at the same time used by the Libyans, in the sense which belongs to it in those languages. Irāsa might then be supposed to mean a tract of table land; for the loss of the letterbis of little importance, considering that the word comes through a Greek medium; and as the Greeks in the case alluded to were conducted from the low ground to the high, such an application is far from improbable. It is not, however, necessary for this application to insist upon the omission of theb; for theiin Irāsa might well be a contraction of the articleeloril, signifyingthe, andI-rāsabe pronounced forel-rāsa, which is consistent with the usual pronunciation of Arabic and other Oriental languages. The whole would then be taken for a part; and the country which the Greeks were recommended to inhabit, would be termed—the summit of the mountain—and in the Libyan dialect (let us suppose) Ir’rāsa, or Er’-rāsa.
[4]The name of Bĭrāsa will naturally suggest a resemblance between it and Irāsa, the country which is mentioned by Herodotus as that to which the Greeks were conducted by the natives of Libya. We do not mean to infer, that the place first mentioned has any other connexion with the territory upon which Cyrene was erected, than that which we are going to suggest; but if the affinity of the Arabic and Hebrew, or Chaldee, to the old Phœnician, or Samaritan language, (an early dialect of the Hebrew,) be really so great as is generally allowed, the two words in question may bear the same meaning without any forced application. The wordrāsin Arabic, and in Hebrew, signifies a head; and the term is constantly applied by the Arabs to high and mountainous ground, whether inland or on the coast: land on the summit of a mountain may therefore be said to be—bi-rās—upon the head, or high ground; andbi-rās-awould signify, in Arabic, as it does in the case of the territory in question—a tract of land on the upper part of a range of hills—and might be applied without any impropriety to a similar tract of land of whatever extent. It is not, perhaps, improbable thatrāshad the same meaning among the Libyan tribes, (whom we may suppose to have spoken some dialect of the old Phœnician,) as it bears in Arabic and Hebrew; and that the particlebiorbe, was at the same time used by the Libyans, in the sense which belongs to it in those languages. Irāsa might then be supposed to mean a tract of table land; for the loss of the letterbis of little importance, considering that the word comes through a Greek medium; and as the Greeks in the case alluded to were conducted from the low ground to the high, such an application is far from improbable. It is not, however, necessary for this application to insist upon the omission of theb; for theiin Irāsa might well be a contraction of the articleeloril, signifyingthe, andI-rāsabe pronounced forel-rāsa, which is consistent with the usual pronunciation of Arabic and other Oriental languages. The whole would then be taken for a part; and the country which the Greeks were recommended to inhabit, would be termed—the summit of the mountain—and in the Libyan dialect (let us suppose) Ir’rāsa, or Er’-rāsa.
[5]We have not been able to publish on this occasion (as we believe we have already stated) more than a limited number of plates; so that several to which we have referred have been unavoidably omitted. Some of the drawings, however, will appear in another publication, with others made in Egypt and Nubia; and in that we shall hope to find means of introducing the greater part of what has been omitted.
[5]We have not been able to publish on this occasion (as we believe we have already stated) more than a limited number of plates; so that several to which we have referred have been unavoidably omitted. Some of the drawings, however, will appear in another publication, with others made in Egypt and Nubia; and in that we shall hope to find means of introducing the greater part of what has been omitted.
[6]The accuracy to which this method of computing distance may be brought, with proper attention, will be seen on referring to the Table, p. xliv. in the Appendix.
[6]The accuracy to which this method of computing distance may be brought, with proper attention, will be seen on referring to the Table, p. xliv. in the Appendix.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
Inaddition to what we have already observed with respect to the shores of the Syrtis and Cyrenaica, we have thought it necessary to subjoin the following short description of them, and of the supplies that ships may expect to meet with at the different places situated along the coast from Tripoli to Derna. The several places therein alluded to, will be found in the accompanying chart, which has been constructed from a succession of angles, carried on along the coast, assisted by astronomical observations, and chronometrical measurements, between three distant points, whose positions were well determined by Captain W. H. Smyth, R.N.
The instruments with which we were furnished, in consequence of the difficulty of carriage, were small, and their number limited; they consisted of a five-inch theodolite, one four-inch and two eight-inch sextants, a telescope for observing the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, a Kater’s azimuth compass, two pocket chronometers, Nos. 2164 and 2184 of Mr. Arnold’s make[1], and a measuring chain and tapes, &c.
Before entering into any particular description, we shall premise by stating that, between Tripoli and Bomba, there is not a harbourcapable of containing a man-of-war brig; though several anchorages will be found along the coast, well sheltered with particular winds.
Tripoly.Tripolyitself is a secure harbour, and has from four to six fathoms water in it: the protection is afforded by a chain of rocks which project from the north-east angle of the town, and by a shoal lying off Caluisa Point. A heavy swell sometimes rolls in from the northward, between the reefs, to which quarter ships should moor with open hawse. On entering the harbour care must be taken to avoid a rocky patch, with only three to three and a half fathoms water upon it, which lies nearly mid-channel. But we shall abstain from entering into further detail, in consequence of this place having been surveyed by Captain W. H. Smyth, from whose plan indeed, partly, we are now enabled to offer these few remarks. When off the port a pilot may always be procured on making the necessary signal.
At Tripoly vessels will find fresh provision, fruit, vegetables, and water.
All vessels from the eastern ports of the Mediterranean must land their cargoes at the Lazzaretto, and perform a stated quarantine.
Tagiura.About seven miles eastward of Tripoly isTagiurapoint, which may be known by the clusters of date-trees around the village of Tagiura, terminating there. From Tagiura to Cape Sciarra there is a sandy desert, traversed by two small streams, Wadey Rammel and Wadey M’Seidi, which give a supply of water throughout the year. Eastward ofCape Sciarrathe coast gets higher, and is formed in rocky points and capes, with sandy bays between them. The mountains, which are a continuation of the Tarhoona range, here approach the sea within seven or eight miles; and a little beyond Sidi Abdellati, throw off a branch at right angles to them, which extends to the sea, and then continuing eastward, nearly parallel to the coast, terminates a few miles south-west of Mesurata[2].
There are several towers upon the summits of this range, of whichthe most conspicuous is Mergip. These mountains form the westernLebdalimit to the great plain ofLebda, (the ancient Leptis Magna.) The ruins of the ancient city stand close upon the beach: they are more than half buried in sand, and are situated about three miles west of the groves of date-trees, which are easily distinguished from the sea. The port, or cothon of Lebda, is now filled up, but there is a small place called Mersa Ligatah, a mile and a half to the westward of the ruins, where small vessels may find shelter, except with the wind from the eastward. The sea here affords good fish; and the shore is stocked with sheep, fruit, vegetables, and corn, which with the help of a chaous, may be obtained at a cheaper rate than at Tripoly.
Tabia Point.Seven miles south-east from the ruins of Lebda, isTabia Point, a rocky headland, about forty feet high, with some rocks at the foot of it. Near it, there will be found indifferent protection for boats behind some rocks, that formMersa Ugrah; but these rocks are sometimes covered.
Mersa, and Point Zeliten.Immediately round Tabia point, the coast forms a bay as far asZeliten Point: this is a rocky projection with several sunken rocks lying off it. Near the point there is a small cove, which has obtained the name of Mersa Zeliten, but it is too small for even boats to remain in blowing weather. It lies a mile and a half to the westward of a márábūt’s tomb, which will be seen upon the beach supported upon small marble columns.
At Zeliten, sheep, fowls, butter, oil, fruit, vegetables, corn, and sweet water, may be procured in abundance, and very reasonably. The town is a short walk from the Mersa, over a ridge of sand-hills, which extend along the coast towards Mesurata.
Eastward of Zeliten, the coast is rocky, and at times rises into cliffs. About mid-way between Cape Mesurata and Zeliten Point, there is a small Arab village, that may be distinguished by a cluster of date-trees, at the foot of some high sand-hills. Several reefs of rocks lie off here, and form Mersa Zoraig, and Mersa Gusser[3].The inhabitants of Zoraig are about one hundred in number, and nothing but water could be procured in any abundance.
Toward the eastern termination of the sand-hills, the rocky coast gets higher, and when four miles from the entrance of the Gulf of Syrtis, forms three cliffs, which, at a distance, Monsieur Lauthier informs us, appear like as many islands. The eastern one of theseCape Mesurata.three isCape Mesurata(the Cephalus Promontorium of Strabo).
Entrance of the Gulf of SyrtisThe entrance to the gulf is formed by a low rocky point: at the back of it there are groves of date-trees among low sand-hills; and a mile to the southward is the white mausoleum of Márábūt Bushaifa, which gives name to the bay it overlooks[4].
Bushaifa Bay.There is good landing under the low point before mentioned, in a small sandy bay abreast of a low sand-hill. The bay appears to be full of fish, and the seine might here no doubt be hauled to advantage.
Mesurata.The Town of Mesurata is about two miles to the southward of the cape of the same name; it is governed by an Aga, to whom it would be found advantageous to make a small present. Fresh provision, fruit, vegetables, and sweet water, may be procured here in abundance.
AarārAbout ten miles south of Bushaifa there is a solitary date-tree, overlooking a low sandy tract of coast, bearing the name ofAarar. Off here, Monsieur Lauthier informs us, at two leagues distant from the shore, there is a rocky bank, a league in length from east to west, with from fourteen to seventeen feet water upon it. The date-tree, the position of which is well determined, will serve as a mark for this bank.
Leaving Aarār and coasting southward, the shore is very low and sandy, withapparentlyno danger. A low ridge of hills extends along the coast from one to three miles distance from it. Some few of these hills are covered with vegetation, and now and then a straggling flock of goats or sheep may be met with; but otherwise no supplies of any kind are to be procured until you arrive atZafferan—firewood excepted, which may be obtained from the wrecks upon the beach in large quantities.
Kusser el Jébbah.Jébbahis the first conspicuous object that presents itself after Aarār. It is an old Arab building, upon an eminence about four miles from the coast. Its position is well determined, and its distance from the beach ascertained by a base purposely measured.
The whole of this coast is very low, and in blowing weather should be avoided, as there appears to be a great set down upon it from the north-east, judging from the number of wrecks, masts and yards, &c., that are thrown upon the beach, on this side of the gulf only—none being seen on the eastern shore.
Shoals.Until we arrived at Jaireed, in latitude 31° 23′ 27″ N., we did not perceive any dangers lying off the coast; but at that place we observed the sea breaking heavily over two shoals, distant from the shore about a mile and a quarter[5].
From Jaireed the coast trends more easterly, but still continues low and sandy, with small hillocks at a short distance from the coast. When near the latitude of 31° 16′ N., ships must avoid someDangerous Shoal.dangerous shoals that branch off from the shore at Jiraff, and extend westward seven or eight miles—their most distant part from the shore being about two miles: the sea broke heavily over them when we passed, but within them it was more quiet; and if a passage should be found between the breakers, a tolerably secure anchorage will in all probability be discovered.
Eastward of Jiraff the coast alters its character: the shore is rocky, the land gets more hilly, and is covered with vegetation. In one part, in latitude 31° 12′ 48″ N., some high sand-hills, surmounted with small tufts of trees, will be seen overlooking theMersa Zafferān.beach; at the foot of them there is a small port calledMersa Zafferan, in which boats may find shelter with all winds; but it will be difficult to find, in consequence of there being no object to distinguish it from the other ports of the coast, except indeed the wall of a building which stands upon the beach be seen protruding through thesand that has nearly covered it. At Zafferan supplies of meat, some few vegetables, and good water, will be found. The Arab tents are at the back of the sand-hills. These hills extend a few miles to the eastward of Zafferan; the coast then rises into cliffs of about fifty feet in height, and is covered with vegetation and brushwood. These cliffs terminate at a wadey eleven leagues eastward of Zafferan, and the coast then continues low and sandy, with sand-hills, at a short distance from it. There are here several small bays,Hammah.and one in particular at Hammah, in which boats may find shelter with almost all winds, and may procure good water, from some wells situated close to the beach. The country about it abounds in game; but we would not recommend landing here, or, in fact, on any part of the coast, without being provided with a chaous. Five miles eastward of Hammah the coast is hilly, but soon declines again to the low sandy beach which continues to Ras How-y-jer, having a range of hills about two or three miles from the coast.
Ras How-y-jer.Ras How-y-jer is a bluff rock, that has the appearance of a ruined castle; it stands at the entrance of a spacious bay formed between it and a bold rocky promontory, called Bengerwad. South 76° east (true) from How-y-jer we noticed the water discoloured, but the sea did not break. In the above-mentioned bay ships may find shelter from east to west north-west, and boats may land in a sandy bay a little south of How-y-jer with almost all winds.
Ras Bengerwād.Bengerwād is about sixty feet in height, and has been strongly fortified, but the ruins are not visible from the sea. There is a small sandy bay, close round the cape, convenient for landing; but care must be taken to avoid the mouth of a ravine, that comes down from the mountains, and deposits a soft quicksand, upon which it is dangerous to land. The range of hills that extend from Boosaida are distant from Bengerwad only a few hundred yards, and afterwards recede to a mile or more from the sea. From Bengerwad the coast gets low, and small sandy bays are formed between very low rocky flats, some of which project a mile into the sea, and are not more than a foot above water. Sixteen leagues from BengerwadAbanbāsathere are some high sand-hills, called Abanbāsa; and a few milesJebel-Allasouth-east of them a remarkable table-hill named Jebel-Alla. Coasting along this part of the gulf, care must be taken to avoid a low rocky islet, with breakers east and west of it. It lies one mile and a half off shore,Bushaifa Islet.and is called Bushaifa. Upon the beach opposite the Islet, there are two wells of good water: they point out Secherine, which is the bottom of the Gulf of Syrtis, in latitude 30° 16′ 00″ north.
GartúbbahFrom Secherine to Gartúbbah, there is a sandy beach; but the general appearance of the coast will be hilly, with high mounds of sand. Near to Gartúbbah is Mersa Braiga; the only place that we have seen in the Gulf of Syrtis, that is at all entitled to the name of a port, and here the protection is made by breakers.
Mersa Braiga.Braiga may be known at a distance, by some very high sand-hills situated at the back of it, and on a nearer approach, by a heap of ruins upon a rocky point, at the western extremity of the Mersa. On the sandy beach within this point, there is safe landing with all winds. Fresh provisions may be procured from the Arab encampments at the back of the sand-hills, and in all probability, a plentiful supply of fish will be found in the bay[6]. The water here is brackish, and tastes of sulphur; it is contained in wells high up among the sand-hills.
We should not recommend Mersa Braiga being approached in bad weather, on account of the number of reefs lying off it, and the difficulty there would be of working off, in consequence of the lee-set which the northerly winds always occasion in the Gulf.
From Braiga, the coast trends north-east by east, is rocky, and slightly indented; the shore, generally speaking, is high and hilly.Ras Tabilbey.Ras Tabilbey is a bold promontory, with a sandy bay on either side of it. The summit of the Ras has been strongly fortified; and the walls are carried up to a castle on the hill at the back of it, but these are now all in ruins, and cannot be discerned from the sea. The promontory is excavated into compartments, which from time, and theconstant washing of the sea, are in a very dilapidated state, and dangerous to remain in during windy weather.
There are several Arab encampments a short distance from the Ras; from which small supplies of fresh provision may be procured.
North-eastward of Ras Tabilbey, there is a cliff of white sand-stone, somewhat conspicuous, with some sunken rocks lying off it. TheRocks.rocks bear north 9″ west (true), from the northern one of two conical hills, that will be seen situated between the before-mentioned Cape and Ras Tabilbey; they are two or three miles off shore. Eastward of the white cliff there is a deep ravine, and then a remarkableAllum Limàrish.peaked hill, called Allum Limàrish. Between these two is situatedAin Agān.Ain Agān, an Arab encampment, from which small supplies of meat, corn, and brackish water may be procured.
North 38° west (true) from Allum Limàrish, there is a remarkably white rock, about forty feet in height and steep on all sides, with reefs of breakers extending east and west from it. It lies about halfIshaifa Rock.a mile off shore, and is known by the name of Ishaifa. From theBreakers.top of Allum Limàrish, we observed the sea breaking heavily over some reefs three or four miles off shore, and appeared to extendFrom N. 78° W. (true).toward the island of Gāra.
Island of Gāra,Gārais a small island, bearing north 13° east (true), from Allum Limàrish, and distant from the shore four miles and a half. It is tolerably high, and appeared steep on all sides. South-west (true)Rocks and Shoals in its vicinity.from Gāra at two miles and a half distance, a rock makes its appearance among a reef of breakers; and south 16° east (true), three miles, another. There is also a bank east by south (true), three miles from it, over which the sea constantly broke.
The coast about here is low and sandy, and, in consequence of the above-mentioned reefs, somewhat dangerous to be approached; but when Gāra and its reefs shall be better known, I have no doubt ships will find shelter from all winds within them.
Several hills, covered with brushwood, will be seen a short distance from the coast, and near the beach there will be found wells of water somewhat brackish, and strongly impregnated with sulphur.
North 52° east (true) from Gāra, at one and a quarter to one and aIslets.half off shore, lie a group of rocky islets, connected by breakers; behind which, I have no doubt, small vessels will find shelter with all winds. They are in the neighbourhood of Rhote el Assoud, (or black valley,) so called, it is said, from the dark appearance of the hills.
North-eastward of these islets, there is a Marabot upon a pointed hill at Shāwhan, and inland two ruined towers, upon the summits of hills.
From Shāwhan, the coast trends to the westward of north up toCarcōra.Carcōra, and forms a large open bight. The shore is low and sandy, with hills of brushwood or sand, a short distance from the sea.
Carcōra may be known by some high sand-hills, which overlook the beach. The coast thereabout is much indented, and there are two small places, somewhat sheltered by projecting points, that would afford protection for boats with northerly or easterly winds.
The most desirable of these is the one at the northern extremity of the sand-hills, a small tower upon a ridge inland, bearing south 77° 45′ east (true). Among the sand-hills will be found several wells some of which will furnish sweet water, but the greater part of them are stinking or brackish. From Ain Agān to Carcōra the country is very thinly inhabited, and no supplies, except what may be procured from straggling flocks, are to be expected. But northward of Carcōra Arab encampments are very numerous. The hills abound in hares, partridges, and pigeons, &c.
Carcōra to Bengazi.From Carcōra to Bengazi, the shore is low and sandy, rising as it recedes from the coast, and is covered with vegetation. Several ruins of forts appear at a little distance from the sea: the most remarkable of these are at Ghimenes, and Imshali, and all of them are laid down trigonometrically in the chart.
Breakers.Care must be taken, as you approach Bengazi, to avoid some breakers, which extend southward from Juliana point, and lie about three-quarters of a mile off shore.
Bengazi.Bengazi is situated at the eastern entrance of the Gulf of Syrtis,and may be known by the clusters of date-trees in its vicinity. They are the only ones that occur upon the coast westward of Derna; but on making the land, the hills, about fourteen miles west-south-west from Bengazi, will be first seen. On a near approach, a white Marábot upon an eminence near the sea, and a square castle at the entrance of the harbour, will serve more immediately to point out the town. During the summer months north-easterly winds are very prevalent in the day time, but generally die away towards night. They are said to extend about forty miles off the coast; and ships bound to Bengazi should in consequence keep to the eastward, as well to take advantage of them, as to counteract the effects of the strong current which they occasion, sweeping along shore into the gulf.
The port of Bengazi is formed by rocks, that project from the castle, and Juliana point; and is rendered very secure by a reef that extends across at a short distance from the mouth of it, leaving a narrow channel on either side: both these passages are very difficult, and upon an average the depth of water in the harbour will be found greater by a foot and a half, or two feet, in winter, than in summer. But we must not always depend upon this, or upon a rise with the winds that may be blowing at Bengazi at the moment; as they may be confined to a short distance only from the coast; whereas it is the wind generally prevalent over the Mediterranean at the season that occasions the increase.
The port of Bengazi is fast filling up with sand, and alluvium, brought down by the heavy rains that annually deluge the town, and boats only can now enter where the Bashaw’s ships were used to remain forty years ago.
The castle is strengthened with bastions at the north, south, and eastern angles; but is deficient at the western one, which is that which would prove most destructive to ships entering the harbour: there are nine guns, eighteen pounders, mounted; they are the only cannon Bengazi can boast of, and the walls which support them would not long withstand the broadside of a man-of-war brig.
Supplies.At Bengazi, ships will find a plentiful supply of fresh beef, mutton and poultry, vegetables, fruit, good water, and sometimes wood; but the latter is very small.
Bengazi toward Bomba.From Bengazi to Bomba, a chain of mountains, from eight hundred to eleven hundred feet in height, extend along the coast in a diagonal direction with the shore, being distant from Bengazi thirteen and a half miles, from Tochra five, Ptolemeta one and a half, and coming close down to the sea in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem. From a rocky point, four and a half miles north-east of Bengazi, the coast runs low and sandy to, or a little way beyond, having at the back a woody country extending to the mountains.
Tochra, or Teuchira.The ruins of Tochra stand upon a small rising ground, which terminates toward the sea in a cliff; the landing here is bad, except in very smooth water, and there is nothing but water to be procured. Between Tochra and Ptolemeta, the woody country approaches the beach.
Ptolemeta, or Dolmāita.Ptolemeta may be distinguished by a large square tomb near the beach, and by the ruins upon the hills to the eastward of it. A mile from the tomb (to the eastward) will be found a small bay, offering convenient landing for boats, except with the wind on shore. It is immediately round a rocky promontory, the first that occurs after the tomb. There are no supplies to be had at Ptolemeta, and no water except, occasionally, in some ancient cisterns.
Mersa Sūsa, or Apollonia.Mersa Susa Hammām, or Apollonia, is situated in the bight of a large bay, formed by Ras El Hilal, and a cape, designated in the charts as Cape Ras Sem. The ruins of the ancient town stand upon a rising ground close to the beach, and may be easily distinguished from the sea.
Though the Arabs have dignified the small indentation of coast that here occurs, with the title of Mersa, and we have the authority of the ancients for its being used as a port formerly, yet it cannot with any propriety be recommended as such for vessels of the present day; nevertheless, boats, or perhaps small craft, may find some shelter behind the islets that lie off the town.
Ranges of mountains.Shipping off this coast will see two distinct ranges of mountains,one above the other. The upper one we ascertained to be one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two feet above the sea[7], and the lower one thousand and fifty-five[8].
The upper range, upon which is situated the ancient Cyrene, declines gradually to the eastward, and unites with the lower one near Cape Bujebāra.
Wadys, or ravines.These mountains are frequently broken by deep chasms that extend far inland. In them grow vast numbers of pine-trees fit for small spars; but we saw none sufficiently large for topmasts, except in Wady Jeräib, far inland. The largest and most remarkable of these chasms, or fiumaras, is at Cape Ras Sem; an abundance of firewood will be found a little way up it, and water may be procured from a stream in the bed of it, which receives its supply from the fountain at Cyrene.
Between Ras Sem and Ras El Hilāl, there are several rocks above water close in shore.
Ras El Hilāl.Ras El Hilāl, or new moon, so called from a round hill upon the range above it, is a rocky projection which extends a mile and a half from the foot of the mountains. On the eastern side of the promontory there is a bay about three-quarters of a mile deep, in which vessels may ride with the wind any way from the southward or westward.
Bujebāra.From El Hilāl to Bujebāra, the next promontory eastward, the shore is rocky; and there is bad landing, except in a small sandy nook, two miles west of the latter place. About mid-way between these capes at Elthroon, a fine stream of water falls into the sea from a deep fiumara.
From Cape Bujebāra to Derna, the same rocky coast continues; but the ravines are fewer, and the mountains somewhat farther removed from the coast.
Rocky Islets.Eight miles westward from Derna, at two miles distance from the shore, there are three small rocky islets, which must be avoided.
The whole of this coast is very thinly inhabited.
Derna.Derna is situated at the mouth of a large fiumara, and is surrounded by clusters of date-trees, which are sufficient of themselves to distinguish the place; but it may also be known by a ruined castle upon a ridge above the town, on the western side of the fiumara, and a márábūt, which stands upon a point, a mile from the town.
There is a good roadstead about a mile and a half off shore, and some shelter for small craft close in shore with the wind from north-north-west to south-east; but they cannot remain with a north-east or easterly wind, nor should they hang on too long in the event of the wind coming in, or they will find it difficult to weather either of the capes.
Supplies.Supplies of fresh beef, vegetables, fruit, and water may be had in abundance. Cattle are from seven to nine dollars a head, and fine sheep about a dollar a-piece.
The town is the residence of Sidi Mahommed, Bey of the district, and eldest son of the Bashaw of Tripoly; to whom it might be found advantageous to make some little present, and to notice by firing a salute.
Strength.Derna is not at all defended; there is an old fort upon the sandy point, but the guns are not in order, and those which once occupied the turrets of the castle upon the hill are thrown down and rendered useless by corrosion—the only annoyance boats attempting to land could find, would be from the few muskets which the inhabitants might furnish.
Landing.The best landing place is to the eastward of the date-trees in a sandy bay round a low point about half a mile eastward of the márábūt. Some rocks lie off this point which boats should avoid.
Prevalent winds.At Derna, as at Bengazi, the most prevalent wind during the summer is along shore; but here it comes from the west north-west. The north wind appears to diverge at Ras Sem, and takes the direction of Bengazi on one side, and Alexandria on the other; for whichreasons vessels bound to Egypt frequently make Ras Sem, and continue along shore.
Pilot.Vessels desirous of entering the harbour, may always procure a pilot, by making the usual signal, except it blow hard, in which case he prefers standing upon the point near the castle, and waves his barracan to the right or left, as he wishes the helm to be put. But as this pilotage may not suit every person, ships would perhaps prefer standing off, until the weather moderated; particularly, as at such times the channel is difficult to hit, on account of the breakers extending across it. But should it be attempted, the weather channel will of course be preferred.
Marks.The mark for the southern one, is the castle in one with the márábūt on the hill to the north-east of the town, and for the northern one, the four date-trees on Juliana point in one, with an old ruined fort upon the rising ground inland of them. But both these passages are very narrow, and it would be more advisable to conn the ship between the reefs, than trust to the marks, as the slightest deviation from them would put the vessel on shore.
When through the breakers, avoid the shore off the castle, as a shoal extends some distance off it; the edge of it is steep, and may generally be seen, and continued along to the west anchorage, which is about three hundred yards west-north-west of the point of a narrow pit of sand, that contracts the port to its present limit.
The depth of water in the harbour varies constantly, according to the winds which prevail in the offing. We observed that the greatest increase was with north-westerly gales, andvice versâ; they generally occasioned a rise of two or three feet, and if continued, even more than that. North-easterly winds had but little effect upon it.
TheGreater Syrtis appears to have been at all times ill provided with ports and harbours, and may at the present day be considered to be wholly unprovided with any; that is to say, with any which could be used as such by ships of modern construction. It will be observed that the whole line of coast laid down in the chart is, at the same time, very indifferently formed by nature to afford security to vessels of any description.
It was not, however, necessary that the ports of the ancients should possess wholly by nature those local advantages which are at the present day considered to be essential for affording protection; and we find that many of them existed in places which must always have been unqualified by their position for affording the security required. In such places art was made to supply the deficiencies of nature, and harbours were built where none could otherwise have been obtained. The mode of constructing these artificial ports has been clearly defined by Vitruvius; and as it may serve to explain what we have stated with respect to the present state of the ports of Ptolemeta and Aspis, we shall submit the passage in question as we have extracted it from Wilkins’s translation.
“A spot was, if possible, selected, which had the advantage of some protection on one of its sides; and the want of a corresponding defence on the other side was supplied in the following manner:—rows of grooved beams were driven in the water, connected by oaken planks, and bound together by chains. The surface of the ground below the water was then levelled and consolidated by means of transtilli, and the space comprehended between the beams filled up with a composition of rough stone, and cement formed of sea-sand mixed with lime, in the proportion of two parts to one, which soonproduced a solid wall.” The author adds, “that sand should be procured for this purpose from the sea-coast between Cumæ and the promontory of Minerva,” which seems to be considered by him as most efficient in forming the cement here alluded to.
If the beams could not, however, be firmly fixed, on account of the action of tides or currents, or from being too much exposed to a heavy swell from the open sea, a strong buttress is recommended by Vitruvius to be built upon the water’s edge, and a portion somewhat less than half the upper surface of the buttress to be constructed upon a horizontal level, the remaining part inclining towards the sea. Upon the edges of this part of the buttress walls were to be raised to the height of the level part, of a foot and a half in thickness, and the intermediate space filled with sand. Upon this foundation a solid pile, we are told, may be built, which, after being finished, should be left to dry for two months at least. The walls which were raised upon the edges of the inclined surface of the buttress, and which seemed to confine the sand, should then be destroyed; and the water, in washing away the sand by degrees, will undermine the pile, and cause it to be precipitated into the sea. This operation should be repeated until the whole is complete.
In places, however, (Vitruvius observes) where this sand is not to be procured, other methods must be resorted to. The space, which the mole is intended to occupy, having been inclosed by a double range of beams connected by planks and chains, the interval between the ranges should be filled with loam, rammed into baskets made of the ulva palustris. The space being filled by masses of this kind, stowed as closely together as possible, the water contained in the inclosed area may be removed by engines calculated for the purpose, such as cochleæ, rotæ, and tympana; and when the ground is left perfectly dry, the foundations may be dug of greater width than the walls they are intended to support, and filled in with rough stone, lime, and sand. Piles of charred alder, olive, or oak, must first be driven into the ground if it be soft, and the intervals between them filled with charred wood, in the manner recommendedfor forming the foundations of the walls of theatres. The walls should then be built upon these foundations with squared blocks of considerable length, so that the stones between these blocks, which extend across the wall, may be bound firmly together. The space inclosed by the walls may be filled in with rubble, or stone-work, and be made so firm that a tower may be erected upon it. The mole being completed, (continues our author) the docks should be built facing the north; because the greater heat of a southern aspect occasions a more rapid decay, and engenders and nourishes moths, ship-worms, and other noxious insects. Timber should, at the same time, be used as sparingly as possible in works of this kind, that they may not be liable to accidents by fire[9].
Harbours[10]of this kind were usually built in a semicircular form, with arms of great length extended into the sea; these were sometimes called χηλαι, from their resemblance to crabs’ claws[11]; Cicero terms themcornua(horns). (Epist. ad Attic. lib. ix. ep. 19.)
For the better security of the ships within the harbour, it was usual to draw strong chains or booms across the entrance, and to defend them with large pales, fortified against the water with pitch. On both sides of the mole were strong towers, which were garrisoned with troops; and not far from these was a watch-tower, or lighthouse, called Pharos, which name belonged originally to a little island in the mouth of the Nile, where the first of these towers was built, but was afterwards naturalized both in Greece and at Rome. In the innermost part of the harbour vessels were often suffered to lie unmoored, whereas in other parts of the port, which were not so well secured, they were either chained to the land, or obliged to lie at anchor. This portion of the harbour was divided into several partitions by walls, constructed for the most part with stone, withinwhich the vessels laid very securely, without the necessity, as we have just mentioned, of using either cable or chain. These places were termed ορμοι, υφορμοι, ναυλοχοι,ormoi,uphormoi,naulokoi, &c., and formed altogether what was called ναυσταθμος (naustathmos[12]).
Here were likewise the docks in which ships were built, or careened, drawn up on the beach.
Most harbours were adorned with temples, or altars, where sacrifices were offered to the tutelar deities of the place, and to those which presided over the sea and the winds. The adjacent places were filled with inns and other places of public entertainment, for the use of mariners, merchants, &c., who might be stationed or touch at the port.
In times of war, harbours were also defended on the land side by a ditch and parapet, or by a wall, built in the form of a semicircle, extending from one point of the sea to the other. The wall was occasionally defended by towers, and beautified with gates, through which the garrison sometimes issued to attack their enemies.
Towards the sea, or within it, pales of wood were also fixed, like those in the harbours, before which the vessels of burthen were placed in such order as to serve instead of a wall, and to give protection to those within. Nicias is reported by Thucydides to have entrenched himself in this manner; but it seems only to have been practised when the enemy were supposed to be very superior in strength, or excited unusual apprehension: at other times a few ships were appointed to reconnoitre the hostile squadron, and to observe the enemy’s motions.
When the fortifications were considered sufficiently strong to resist any assault which might be made upon them, the vessels were usually hauled up on the beach, and around them were pitched the tents of the soldiers and sailors, as appears everywhere in Homer, Thucydides, &c. This practice, however, seems only to have been resorted to in the winter season, when the enemy’s fleet was equallylaid up, and there was no apprehension of an assault; or in long-continued sieges, where no danger was to be apprehended from the enemy’s navy, as in the Trojan war, when the Greeks were never attacked by sea. At other times the ships lay at anchor, or were made fast to the shore, that upon any alarm they might be ready to receive the enemy.
Construction of ancient vessels.The ships of the ancients were very differently constructed from those which are at this day in use; and their rate of sailing was, for the most part, even lower than that of the dullest sailing vessel we are at present acquainted with. The rate, however, varied at different times, and will be found at some periods of the Roman empire to have been extremely respectable.
The earliest ships were built with very little art or contrivance, and had neither strength nor durability, beauty nor ornament; they consisted of nothing more than single planks laid together, just sufficiently united to keep out the water, and were in some places nothing more than trunks of trees hollowed out, forming vessels of single pieces of timber. Other materials besides wood were also employed in the construction of ships; among which may be mentioned the Egyptian papyrus, and more especially the hides of different animals, of which the primitive vessels were very frequently composed. These were sometimes girt with wicker-work, and frequently used in that manner, even in later times, on the rivers of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sabæan Arabia.
In early periods, however, when vessels of this construction were employed, we find no mention of anything but leather, or hides sewed together. It was in a ship of this kind that Dardanus secured his flight from Samothracia to the country afterwards called Troas; and Charon’s boat was also (according to Virgil) constructed of the same material[13].
On their first invention, all ships, for whatever purpose they mighthave been designed, appear to have been of the same form; but the various ends of navigation, some of which were better answered by one form, some by another, soon gave occasion for a distinction, not only in point of size, but also in the mode of construction and equipment.
Without attempting to enumerate every trifling alteration, we may state generally, that the vessels of the ancients were divided into three classes—ships of burthen, of war, and of passage; and these again had their several distinctions into other classes and subdivisions. Ships of burthen were usually of an orbicular form, having large and capacious hulls for the convenience of stowage; whereas, ships of war were of a greater length in proportion to their size, as we find to be the case at the present day. Transport vessels were of a form between the ships of war and of burthen, being more capacious than the former, and longer than the last-mentioned species.
Management of the vessels.There was at the same time a difference in the management of the vessels enumerated. Men-of-war, though not wholly destitute of sails, were chiefly managed with oars, that they might be more able to tack and manœuvre in light or contrary winds, and to lay themselves alongside the enemy to advantage; while the other two species were commonly governed by sails, and vessels of transport were towed, when it was practicable, with ropes. All three modes of government (by sail, oar, and tow-rope) were, however, occasionally adopted by each of the classes. The rowers were not placed, as some have imagined, upon the same level in different parts of the ship, nor perpendicularly above each other’s heads; but their seats, being fixed one at the back of another, ascended gradually in the manner of stairs. The most usual number of these banks was three, four, and five, composing what are called trireme, quadrireme, and quinquiremeNumber of banks of oars.galleys; the second of these having a range of oars more than the first, and the third a range more than the second—the height of the vessel always increasing in proportion to the number of ranges. In primitive times, the long ships had only one bank of oars; andtherefore, when we find them called πεντεκοντοροι (fifty-oared), and εκατοντοροι (hundred-oared), we are not to suppose they were rowed with fifty and an hundred banks, but only with so many oars. The ship Argo, invented by Jason, was rowed with fifty oars, and, according to some writers, was the first of the long ships; all vessels, till that time, having been of a form much more inclining to oval. Others carry the invention of long ships somewhat higher, referring it to Danaus, who sailed from Egypt to Greece in a ship (we are told) of fifty oars; and even if Jason be allowed to have been the first who introduced the long ships into Greece, yet he cannot be considered as the original contriver of them, but rather an imitator of the Egyptian or African model, the latter of which was constructed some time before by Atlas, and much adopted in that part of the Mediterranean. The first who used a double bank of oars were the Erythræans, and Aminocles of Corinth added a third, as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Diodorus have reported; although Clemens Alexandrinus attributes this invention to the Sidonians. A fourth bank was added by a Carthaginian called Aristotle; and Nesicthon of Salamis (according to Pliny), or Dionysius the Sicilian (according to Diodorus), increased the number to five; Xenagoras of Syracuse added a sixth; and Nesigiton increased the number to ten. Alexander the Great and Ptolemy Soter had vessels of twelve and fifteen banks of oars; and Philip, the father of Perseus, is said to have had one of sixteen.
Extreme bulk of some of the vessels.As the method of erecting one bank above another came to be generally known, it was easy to make further additions; Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, built a ship of thirty banks; and Ptolemy Philopator, that he might outdo his predecessors, enlarged the number still further to forty; which, as all other parts were necessarily in proportion, raised the vessel to such an enormous size, that it appeared at a distance like a floating mountain or island, and on a nearer view took the form of a huge castle in the midst of the waves. This enormous structure contained four thousand rowers, four hundred sailors employed in other services, and a body of nearly three thousandsoldiers! But this, and such like fabrics, (says the author of the Archæologia, from which we have extracted these particulars,) served only for show and ostentation; being by their great bulk rendered unwieldy and unfit for ordinary use. Athenæus (he adds) has informed us, that these vessels were commonly known by the names of Cyclades and Ætna; names of islands and mountains, to which they appeared almost equal in size—consisting, as some report, of materials sufficient for the construction of at least fifty triremes.
Besides those already mentioned, there were other vessels fitted with half banks of oars, which seem to have been between a unireme and a bireme, and consisting of a bank and a half: also some between a bireme and a trireme, having two banks and an half of oars. These, although perhaps built in other respects after the model of the long ships, or men-of-war, are seldom comprehended under that name, and are sometimes mentioned in opposition to them.
Various descriptions of ancient vessels.Several other kinds of ships are enumerated by different authors, which varied from those already described; being fitted for particular uses, or seas, or employed upon urgent occasions in naval fights, but more commonly as υπηρετικαι (or tenders), and as victualling ships for supplying the principal fleet.
Some were built for expedition, to carry expresses, or to observe the enemy’s motions, without incurring the danger of being taken by the heavier, and armed vessels; these were distinguished from the former by the manner of their construction and equipment, being in part like men-of-war, and partly resembling ships of burthen, while in some things they differed from both, as the various exigencies for which they were fitted might seem to require.
Mode of rigging.Every ship in later times had several masts; but we are told by Aristotle, that at first there was only one mast, which was fixed in the middle of the ship. On landing, the mast was taken down, as appears everywhere in Homer, and placed on a thing called ιστοδοκη, which according to Suidas, was a case wherein the mast was deposited;but Eustathius will have it to be nothing more than a piece of wood, against which it was reared. About the mast was constructed a kind of turret for soldiers to stand upon and cast darts.
Sails are by some thought to have been first invented by Dædalus, and to have given rise to the fable of his using wings; others refer this invention to Icarus, making Dædalus the contriver of masts and yards. There was originally only one sail in a ship; but afterwards a greater number was found convenient; the names of which are enumerated by Potter.
Sails were commonly of linen; but sometimes of any other material fit for receiving and repelling the wind. We occasionally find mention of leathern sails; and it was usual with the ancients, when none were at hand, to hang up their garments for this purpose: whence arose (continues our author) the fable of Hercules, who is feigned to have sailed with theback of a lion, because he used no other sail but his garment, which was a lion’s skin. Occasionally the ropes and rigging were for the most part composed of leathern thongs; afterwards cordage of hemp and flax came into use, as well as of broom, palm-leaves, philyry, and the bark of trees, such as cherry, vine, maple, &c. The oars were usually covered with brass in the blade, or broad part of the oar, to make them stronger and more durable;Oars and anchors.the oars of the lowest bank were shorter than the rest, and those of the uppermost ranges were necessarily the longest, being at the greatest distance from the water, for which reason it was customary to load their handles with lead, lest the bottom should outpoise the top. The row-locks, and the seats of the rowers were generally covered with hides.
The most ancient anchors are said to have been of stone, and occasionally of wood, to which a quantity of lead was attached. In some places, baskets full of stones, and sacks filled with sand, were employed for this purpose. In later times they were composed of iron, and furnished with teeth (arms,) whence οδοντες anddentesare frequently used for the anchors themselves in the Greek and Latin poets. Originally there was only one tooth; but a secondwas added by Eupalamus, or by Anacharsis, the Scythian philosopher.
The Scholiast on Apollonius confidently asserts, that this species of anchor was used by the Argonauts; but herein (says Potter) he appears to deserve no great credit, for his assertion is contrary to the testimony of other writers, and his own author, Apollonius, makes mention of none but those of stone. The anchors with two teeth appear, from ancient monuments, to have been much the same with those which are used in the present day, except that the transverse piece or anchor-stock is found to be wanting in all of them. Every ship had several anchors, one of which surpassed all the others in point of size and strength, and was never used but in cases of extreme danger; for which reason it was termed ιηρα, in Latin,sacra; andsacram anchoram solvere, is proverbially applied to such as are forced to their last refuge. The instrument which answered to theleadof modern days was also composed of lead or brass, and lowered by a chain instead of a line.
Cables were sometimes called καμιλοι, or καμηλοι, (cámili, or camēli,) whence, in the passage of St. Matthew, where our Saviour remarks, that “it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of heaven,” Theophylactus, and some others, have interpreted the word καμηλος, (camēlus) not as meaning the animal, but the cable so called.
Equipment of vessels.With regard to the equipment of the vessels of the ancients, we are told by Thucydides, that there was originally no distinction ofShips’ companies.rank among their crews; but that the same persons were employed indiscriminately in those duties which in later ages were executed by separate orders of men, that is to say, by rowers, mariners, and soldiers. The same men originally filled these three offices; they laid down their arms to labour at the oar, and to do, perhaps, what was necessary in other respects for the management of the vessel they belonged to; but resumed them as often as occasion required, to assault, or defend themselves from, their enemies. At these periods no extraordinary preparations were made for the equipmentof ships of war, but the same vessels were thought sufficient to answer the purposes of fighting and transport indiscriminately.
As the arts of navigation and of naval warfare improved, it was found that any one of the occupations we have enumerated was enough to engross the whole time and application of the persons employed in the performance of it; and it then became customary to furnish ships of war with three distinct orders of men;viz., rowers, mariners, and soldiers. The rowers were divided into three classes; those of the upper, the middle, and the lower ranges. Each person had a separate oar, for, except in cases of necessity, one oar was never managed by more than one person; but the labour and pay of the several classes of rowers were not at the same time equal: they who were stationed in the uppermost banks, by reason of their distance from the water, and the consequent length of their oars, underwent more toil and labour than those in the inferior banks, and their pay was on that account greater.
The crew took their rest upon the deck, or upon the seats where they rowed; and the officers only, or persons of more than ordinary rank on board, were permitted to have clothes spread under them; of which the following instance is quoted by the author of the Archæologia from Homer:—