II. The Aesthetic Aspects of Smoke Pollution
“The smoke nuisance is the greatest hindrance to the highest development of civic beauty and refinement” (Holdsworth,33). Historically the first anti-smoke propagandas were waged against the nuisance on aesthetic grounds. In London the use of “Sea cole” was legally prohibited during a portion of the middle ages because the smoke palls marred the beauty of buildings, which were at that time painted in whitewash, with colored decorations in front (34). Violations of the smoke statute were considered so serious that a citizen of London was executed in 1306 for burning “Sea cole” (22). With the lapse of the anti-smoke ordinance in the middle of the sixteenth century the use of lime white and colored effects on the exterior of buildings was abandoned, and in their place appeared an unsightly, discolored, mottled, greasy coat of tarry soot on the outside of buildings.
A smoke-contaminated atmosphere imposes very severe restrictions on the efforts of the architect, sculptor, painter, decorator and landscape gardener to beautify our cities. This limitation applies to the character of the paints and colors, the nature of the materials, the style of architecture, interior decoration, and the possibilities of artistic horticultural effects.
Exterior painting in the form of mosaic or polychromic ornamentation cannot be successfully employed to any extent in smoky cities (32). Colored effects on stones, metals, ordinary or glazed bricks or faience will not for long retain their purity in a murky atmosphere. A grimy, blotchy, streaky, inartistic, abject appearance of the exterior chromatic decoration of buildings in smoky cities is a matter of common observation. Even glazed white bricks when used inside the building may become dirty and discolored. Observation shows that placards in red lead become gradually decolored in cities, even when protected against the sun and rain, but not in the countryair (35). The pernicious influence of the smoke on color effects is probably due to the fact that the colors become mechanically covered over by a coat of tarry soot and dirt. This tarry mass may effectually obliterate all color effects. It tends to adhere so firmly that it can only be removed, if at all, with great difficulty and with the aid of special solvents, and in the process of removal the colored paints often tend to scale off with the dirt. The defiling effect of the actual dirt is the most objectionable influence of smoke on stained glass. But smoke may also cause the disintegration of paint films, owing to the corrosive agents which smoke often contains. It is thus evident that smoke largely restricts exterior coloration to a play of light and shade. In fact, it tends to restrict paint effects to the darker shades.
Smoke also causes decay of interior paintings and tends to restrict the furniture and furnishings to the more somber hues. In smoky atmospheres the interiors of buildings are usually more or less dark, hence special efforts must be made to keep the paintings free from dust and soot films. But constant mechanical or chemical cleaning or washing lessen the brilliancy of the color effects. A smooth, varnish-like or glazed coating on mural decorations is favorable for purposes of cleaning, but inimical to the best artistic effects. The matt enables the colored designs to show off to the best advantage, but matt is absorbent and attracts smoke and dirt products and resists successful cleaning. In the case of paint on plaster the corrosive products in smoke (particularly sulphuric acid) penetrate through the paint so that it tends to scale off; while in the case of fresco the porous surface of the carbonate of lime provides opportunity for the tenacious lodgment of dirt and for the destructive action of the acids. The carbonate is transformed into gypsum. It is so expanded that it loses its binding power, while the painting-ground is also often destroyed (30). It should be remarked incidentally that housewives in smoky cities are much inclined to keep doors and windows shut in order to exclude soot and dirt. While this may beaesthetically commendable, it is none the less hygienically objectionable. Moreover, the great amount of extra labor required to keep houses clean in smoky cities consumes the vital reserve of many women and robs them of the leisure moments which are theirs by right and which are essential for bodily rest and mental recreation and improvement.
Not only is smoke inimical to the highest aesthetic utilization of artificial coloration—particularly exterior coloration—but it obliterates the most richly colored panorama of nature, namely, the iridescent clouds of the sky. The situation in cities is bad enough without the smoke, for in large cities the tall buildings prevent many people from ever getting a glimpse of the beautiful cloudscapes of the sunset or the splendor of the sunrise. But when you add the smoke palls to the buildings you often effectually close all visual approach to the richly illumined and picturesquely silhouetted clouds of the day and the resplendent stars of the night. That this frequent obscuration of the sky limits the aesthetic resources of any community has been shown by the writer in the article to which reference has already been made (9).
Clouds are capable of calling out the strongest emotions of the soul—fear, depression, gloom, awe, reverence, joy, cheer and hope. Children take great delight in watching cloudscapes and in discovering objects in the constantly changing forms. Over one hundred different kinds of objects were recorded in the replies which were tabulated in this investigation. Richly illumined, iridescent and constantly changing cloudscapes afford a most fertile field for the exercise of imaginative creativeness. The masters who have charmed the race by their imaginative descriptions often have derived their most exquisite conceptions from the flying cloudscapes rather than from beautiful flowers, mountains, parks or buildings. No work of art can elevate the feelings to such lofty adoration of the marvels of nature as the colored glories of the sunset and sunrise (Biglow). The scenes of the Scandinavian gods and goddesses were staged in cloudland. The cloudshave impressed themselves upon the cosmogony, mythology, religion, morals, beliefs and superstitions of primitive races as well as of modern children. The modern child’s emotional reactions are vestiges of ancestral attitudes towards clouds, while the modern painter and poet still find inspiration in cloudland. City smoke not only cheats us of our birthright, by depriving us of an important means for developing the powers of observation and imagination as well as of a source of aesthetic culture (because it covers the heavens with an opaque blanket); but it also displaces the cathedrals of nature with an uninteresting, nasty, black, opaque pall of soot which stimulates tendencies toward discontent and frequently arouses morbid emotions. Mankind has always taken a delight in color. Under primitive conditions man bedecks his body with colored habiliments for purely decorative rather than protective purposes. Deprived of the enjoyment of the natural terrestrial color effects by high buildings, man resorts to the artificial coloration of his buildings. But the smoke palls tend to subvert his every effort to satisfy the demands of his color sense. The abatement of smoke will do much to restore hue and chroma to their rightful places in the aesthetic development of manufacturing cities.
Smoke defaces, disfigures or destroys buildings and restricts the styles of architecture. The sulphuric acid particularly corrodes or disintegrates practically all kinds of building materials (slate and granite possibly excepted). Marble tends first to turn green and then black; limestone deteriorates very rapidly, turning to gypsum owing to its great affinity for sulphur. The absorption of sulphur causes the stone to expand, thus rendering it soluble and powdery so that particles are constantly washed or blown away. The very best stone obtainable was used in the new additions to the House of Parliament in London, and every care suggested by modern science was taken to preserve the materials, yet the buildings were much eroded after a few years. One of the worst aspects of the smoke nuisance is the insidiously destructive influenceof smoke on ancient buildings, relics or monuments.
Smoke thus not only shortens the life of building materials, but it destroys the force of expression of the architecture so that buildings are reduced to a shabby mass of begrimed masonry. The sharp outstanding moldings, designs, friezes, cornices, ornaments and carvings—the essentially artistic in architectural construction—are not only rapidly eroded but they are obliterated by the dense deposit of tarry soot, or rendered invisible because of the diminished illumination caused by the murky palls of smoke that hang over our cities. In the city of London 650 tons of soot have been deposited per square mile of ground surface, and soot deposits ¾ inch thick have been scraped from cornice projections. The beauty of the architectural views consists in the distinctness of the outlines. Soot deposits conceal the artistic effects not only on stone and brick but also on wood. The difficulty cannot be entirely overcome by cleaning, because cleaning tends to remove the sharp edges and outlines. Moreover, preservatives for water proofing often leave an unpleasant color and frequently are not effective unless 18 or 20 coats are applied (for example of baryta-water).
The ornamentation of city buildings is thus seriously restricted, while the preservation of historical landmarks is jeopardized by smoke pollution. Smoke and architectural embellishment are irreconcilable enemies.
The influence of smoke on metal work is equally pernicious. The sulphuretted hydrogen in smoke blackens, disfigures or tarnishes nearly all metals. Copper and bronze rapidly darken, iron rapidly corrodes, aluminum is affected by vapors and acids, many metals become pitted from electro-chemical action, and even gold or gilded articles become dull. Gilt titles on books will fade in the city while retaining their luster in the country. Bright and uneven metallic surfaces may also become coated with a mottled, sooty smear. To keep sign plates on any metal work bright and shiny requires constant work in smoky cities. The protective coatings used arenot entirely satisfactory because they tend to crack or to peel off, or to leave pin holes. Constant cleaning entails large expense both because of the labor required and because of the wear on the metal. Rather than assume this added burden of expense merchants in smoky cities tend to minimize the use of brilliant metallic ornaments. In consequence such cities often lack that polished metallic splendor which is one of the charms of the tourist cities of the earth.
Outdoor statuary in metal or stone in smoky cities suffers from all the disadvantages affecting buildings and metal work. The bituminous deposits cannot be removed by washing, and statues can only be protected by layers of water proofing. But even then ugly layers of grime will cover the exterior and render unsightly some of our best treasures of municipal art.
The possibilities of landscape or decorative gardening are also artificially restricted in a smoky atmosphere. Cloudiness as such is one of the most important items in agricultural climatology. But in addition to this there are many shrubs and trees which do not thrive in smoke—rhododendrons, conifers, evergreens—while the beauty of all trees, shrubs and flowers is marred by deposits of smoky opacity.
In consequence of the above artistic limitations, the artistic education available not only for the masses but particularly for students of art in smoky cities, is necessarily restricted. Their first, and sometimes only, artistic impressions are derived from an artistically limited and ultra-utilitarian environment, and from besmirched and sordid surroundings instead of from a clear, clean atmosphere of artistic excellence.
Not only do grimy, physical surroundings debase the aesthetic ideals of the dweller in smoke, but they also probably tend to foster personal habits of carelessness. The children playing in the streets in grimy cities become so accustomed to soot and smut that they learn to revel in grime and to glory in grease. To say that we have become a “well washed” race (as say Sir Thomas OliverandDr.Woods Hutchinson) because we are being constantly defiled by atmospheric smut is tantamount to saying that we have become moral, healthy and vigorous because of contamination by the social plague or infection by virulent bacteria. It is not so. Even if we do resort to more frequent external cleansing this does not render us any cleaner, because we may forthwith become begrimed by the omnipresent smut of the air. Moreover, our lungs and alimentary canal can not so readily be “washed out,” so that smoke at least keeps us interiorally begrimed. So far as the young child is concerned, the labor of cleaning is usually thrown upon the mother. Mothers evidently grow weary of washing the faces and hands and changing the clothes of their youthful progeny several times a day. Hence the child is left to wallow in dirt. Adults may tend to continue the habits which they formed as children. They, too, at any rate, grow weary of constant ablutions and changes of garments, and will tend to adopt the more somber shades of apparel which are less readily soiled by soot. The lighter raiment which often is more pleasing to the eye, and in the summer time is more conducive to comfort, must often be tabooed in smoky cities. The wearing apparel in such cities in consequence will offer less variety than in cities of low-smoke content. Women in white fabrics must not venture to sit down on an unprotected park seat in smoky cities less they carry away a conspicuous ribbon of grime across their backs.
It is possible that habits of carelessness, indifference, or ready satisfaction which the dwellers in smoky cities may tend to acquire, in respect to personal cleanliness and dress and in respect to the artistic and cleanly appearance of the external city surroundings, may transfer to other aspects of their psychic existence, because, while the doctrine of formal discipline has been exploded in its crass form, psychological experiments show that habits which have been acquired in one phase of mental action will transfer more or less to other phases of mental action which have similar or identical elements (36).
Finally it should be emphasized that cities befouled with murky smoke are at a decided disadvantage as tourist or residential places. Wealthy tourists and globe trotters go to the brilliant, resplendent, ornate, clean cities—the show places—and not to the nasty, pungent smoke producers. Even if the tourist perchance does come to a dirty town he will rarely tarry there for any length of time. Few towns which tolerate the smoke nuisance can hope to compete for tourist trade. The loss in tourist trade caused by preventable smoke in manufacturing cities represents an enormous economic loss to the trades and professions of those cities. Not only so, people looking for a city residence will not seek centers reeking with smoke. Retired people of wealth will prefer the smoke-free cities of culture and art where they can inhale the uncontaminated, invigorating ozone of sun-kissed skies.