Dish Washing.
Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.
One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once,which will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut, use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish towels, dish cloth and dish pan.
Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits of turpentine.
Ventilation and Sanitation.
As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1. See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry. Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4. Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be neglected.
One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air andodors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few inches at the bottom, or—as in some double or outside windows—by a little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.
If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.
When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which has beenoccupied as a family sitting room during the evening should be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the night.
Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very cold weather.
Laundry Work.
As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found. The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these substances,forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such water is known as "hard."
Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why "hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely upon soap for cleansing.
Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised. Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot water.
Removing Stains.—All spots and stains should be taken out before the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap. Fruit stains are the mostfrequent and the most indelible, when neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.
Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water. Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid water;hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used. Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water—2 tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.
The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water. Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered. Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene before water and soap touch them.
Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated with oxalic, muriatic or hottartaric acid, applied in the same manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears. Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight stain.
Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer. When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available,use a bleaching powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.
Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes. This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed. The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boilingwater over the clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because the temperature is so quickly lowered.
The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and disinfectant.
Washing of Woollens.
All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be used to make the water very soft.
Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly througha wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, for the teeth become knotted and hard.
Colored Cottons.
Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware. The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place. Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.
Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth anda few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease, lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.
All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.
One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to avoid a draft—especially when airing the room. If the room is too small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but injurious.
One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient. Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire. Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.
One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the hunger—neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come underthe head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing. Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly, albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together), and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence, any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.
People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals, and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for invalids.
Beverages.
Barley Water.—Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of water, and allow it toboil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be added while boiling if desired.
Apple Water.—Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to taste; serve when cold.
Flax Seed Tea.—One-half cupful of flax seed—which has been carefully washed in cold water—to 1 quart of boiling water; boil slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon juice and sugar.
Lemonade.—Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or cold as required.
Orange Water.—Made the same as lemonade.
Meat Extractives.
Beef Juiceis prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through, then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry toast.
Beef Tea.—Cut juicy pieces of steak—the round steak is the best—into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to 160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press, strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.
Beef Tea(No. 2).—Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour, stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point. Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer; allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)
Beef Essence.—(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60 grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel placed in hot water.
Chicken Broth.—Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer till the meat is tender. A few minutesbefore removing from the fire add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain, and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg. Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared with the egg.
Mutton Broth.—Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain, season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken off with a spoon.
Oatmeal Gruel.—To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. Then boil the water.
Egg Soup.—Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strainthrough a sieve and add 1/2 pint of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste, and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.
Albumen and Milk.—Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk. Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A pinch of salt may be added if desired.
Egg-Nog.—Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2 teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk of the egg makes it more palatable.
Orange Soup.—Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind, and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used for this soup.)
Arrowroot Gruel.—Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds; take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)
Rice Water or Jelly.—Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink, add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot or cold.
Stewed Figs.—Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point, and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.
Jellied Chicken.—Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4 inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the chicken when cooking.)
Raw Meat Sandwiches.—Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped very fine and rubbed through ahair sieve or scraped from a slice of steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be added if the flavor is liked.)
Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc.(See recipes in preceding chapters.)
"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits, which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.
"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anæmia and chlorosis, which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)
An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite, increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.
The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for the reason given in the precedingsentence and for its effect upon the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece of whole wheat bread and butter should be given—if they awaken—during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor, and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and butter, between meals.
These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.
If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted, should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice, tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good bowl of nutritious broth—or soup—with bread or crackers, may be substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.
Some of the more important articles of school diet require special mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical Dietetics may prove helpful:—
Bread.—"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must not be too coarse. The advantage of thisbread for children consists in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however, when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."
Milk.—"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking. Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of milk.'"
Meat.—"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly growing children."
Sweets.—"The greater number of children have a natural craving for sweets."
The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main difficulty with such forms ofsugar, however, is that children are not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy, which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much, with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years. (Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)
Exercise.—As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often, though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic attack.
Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated appetites.
One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.
It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids, have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the following suggestions may prove helpful.
The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as well as the comfort of the household.
Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least, seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline, this must be corrected by the use of lime water.
There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk, therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following proportions have been submitted asa digestible form of preparing cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):—
One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day, and once or twice at night.
After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be given at once.
The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should be:—
When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.