STERILIZED MILK.
Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the boiling point (212° F.).This may be done by putting the milk into perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The bottle should be closely coveredimmediatelyafter with absorbent cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into the milk.
PASTEURIZED MILK.
The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the milk is kept at a temperature of 170° F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk. All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather, especially for children.
CHEESE.
Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat. Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the fats and salts.
EGGS.
Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an egg the entire structure of the bird—bones, nerves, muscles, viscera, and feathers—is developed. The inner portion of the shell is dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a hen's egg is about as follows (Church):—
White—In100 parts.Yolk—In100 parts.Water84.8Water51.5Albumen12.0Casein and albumen15.0Fat, sugar, extractives, etc.2.0Oil and fat30.0Mineral matter1.2Pigment extractives, etc.2.1Mineral matter1.4
The albumen—or the "white"—of an egg is greatly altered by cooking. When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170° F., leaving the whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in 1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggsbakedin puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble varieties of albumen.
GELATIN.
Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered valuable as a stimulant.
These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being inferior in quality to thatcontained in meat, they can scarcely be given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value, especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)
Fats and oils contain three elements—carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed.
USES OF FAT.
(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose, and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining expeditions, etc.
Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of starchy foods by preventing them from forminglumpy masses in the mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread, potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable, butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion.
The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are:
BUTTER.
Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent. fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly nutritious and digestible.
CREAM.
Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream when eaten slowly is very nutritious.
LARD.
Lard is hog fat, separated by melting.
SUET.
Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys.
COTTOLENE.
Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil.
OLEOMARGARINE.
Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute for butter.
OLIVE OIL.
Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or cream for consumptives.
COTTON SEED OIL.
Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil.
NUTS.
Nuts contain a good deal of oil.
The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course, more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich in proteids.
The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):—
Percentage of Starch in Vegetable Foods.
Per Cent.Wheat bread55.5Wheat flour75.6Graham flour71.8Rye flour78.7Buckwheat flour77.6Beans57.4Oatmeal68.1Cornmeal71.0Rice79.4Potatoes21.3Sweet Potatoes21.1Turnips6.9Carrots10.1Cabbage6.2Melons2.5Apples14.3Pears16.3Bananas23.3
It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat, oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to provide the necessary protein, is apt toover-tax the digestive organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public School Physiology.)
STARCH.
The digestion of starch—which is insoluble in cold water—really begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking, which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food, produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch. Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and toast—when properly made—are digested. It is more important to thoroughly chew starchy food thanmeat, as it is mixed with another digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach.
SUGAR.
There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar, grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane, the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used for cooking purposes.
MOLASSESandTREACLE.
Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt.
GLUCOSE.
Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so desirable for general use as cane sugar.
HONEY.
Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering plants, and storedby them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13, fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.)
While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them, and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They, however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place:
WHEAT.
A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that part of the wheat being included in bread flour—not by the addition of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form of flour.
The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and maize, will be of interest (Stone):—
Composition of Bread from Wheat and Maize.
In Air-Dry Material.Water.Ash.Fat.Fibre.Protein.Nitrogenfreeextract.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.Bread from whole winter wheat3.072.331.222.8615.7074.82Bread from whole spring wheat7.461.691.242.8015.2671.55Bread from fine flour, winter wheat10.39.59.32.4411.9476.32Bread from fine flour, spring wheat8.00.43.47.3914.4176.30Corn bread from whole maize3.401.884.142.5312.8875.17In Dry Matter.Ash.Fat.Fibre.Protein.Nitrogenfreeextract.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.P.ct.Bread from whole winter wheat2.401.252.9516.2077.20Bread from whole spring wheat1.821.343.0216.4977.33Bread from fine flour, winter wheat.66.35.4913.3385.17Bread from fine flour, spring wheat.47.51.4215.6682.94Corn bread from whole maize1.954.292.6213.3377.81
BREAD.
The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread.
Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes). The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself known by the bubbleswhich appear and the gradual swelling of the whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten, which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212° F., the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This increase of weight is due to the addition of water.
MACARONI.
Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as their value deserves.
BUCKWHEAT.
Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals.
RYE.
Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat.
CORN.
Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy. It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter.
RICE.
Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit, such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc.
BARLEY.
Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of thedigestive juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and digestible carbohydrates.
OATMEAL.
Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid, salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given (Letheby):—
Nitrogenous matter12.6per cent.Carbohydrates, starch, etc.63.8"Fatty matter5.6"Mineral matter3.0"Water15.0"——Total100.0
Legumes—peas, beans and lentils—have an exceedingly leathery envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water—in order to soften the woody fibre—and are then cooked slowly for some hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which form they are used in soups.
POTATOES.
Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water. They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better boiled and baked in theirskins, so as to prevent the escape of the salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked than cooked in any other form.
BEETS.
Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets, either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be very wholesome.
CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT.
Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the turnip being the least nutritious.
GREEN VEGETABLES.
Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery.
TOMATOES.
Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion.
CUCUMBERS.
Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible.
ASPARAGUS.
Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin which it contains is supposed to possess some value.
RHUBARB.
Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable.
ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS.
Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables considered.
Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid of all.
(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics; (5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite, improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning.
NUTS.
Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English walnuts are the most nutritious.
TEA.
Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains more tannin than black. The following table will show the difference:—
Green Tea.Black Tea.Crude protein37.4338.90Fibre10.0610.07Ash (mineral matter)4.924.93Theine3.203.30Tannin10.644.89Total nitrogen5.996.22
The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1) Use freshly boiled water; (2) allowit to infuse only three or four minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in good health.
COFFEE.
Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried, roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of the composition of coffee beans (Konig):—
Water1.15Fat14.48Crude fibre19.89Ash (mineral matter)4.75Caffeine1.24Albuminoids13.98Other nitrogenous matter45.09Sugar, gum and dextrin1.66
Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless. Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant and not harmful to adults.
COCOA.
Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee, although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):—
Theobromine1.73Total nitrogenous substance19.28Fat30.51Water3.83Ash (mineral matter)8.30Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract37.48
ALCOHOL.
The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.)
Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry, pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery. Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more digestible.
The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal, kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking purposes.
COAL.
Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly, gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes.
OIL.
Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel.
GAS.
Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be used in certain localities.
CARE OF A FIRE.
Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range. The plainer the range theeasier it will be to keep it clean. There should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate (saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper, then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper. When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven. When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range, either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being very careful to move it gently.
Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and the cup is one holding 1/2 pint.
The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:—
4 cups of flour=1poundor 1 quart.2 cups of solid butter=1"1/2 cup butter=1/4"2 cups granulated sugar=1"21/2 cups powdered sugar=1"3 cups meal=1"1 pint of milk or water=1"1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly=1"9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs=1"2 level tablespoonfuls butter=1ounce.4 " " "=2ouncesor 1/4 cup.Butter the size of an egg=2"2 level tablespoonfuls sugar=1"4 " " flour=1"4 " " coffee=1"4 " " powdered sugar=1"