MenuVI.—For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate muscular work.
Food materials.Weight.Cost.Protein.FuelValue.Breakfast.Lbs.Oz.Cents.Pounds.Calories.Cornmeal, in mush or cake051.022414Milk61.01264Sugar2½...232Toast102½.059753Butter (24 cents per pound)23...434——————————Total8.0931,897Dinner.Beef roll (for roasting)3015.4172,280Potatoes182.026488Beets81.00785Bread102½.059753Butter23...434——————————Total23½.5094,040Supper.Beans, baked206.4463,180Pork126.0122,556Potatoes, fried182.026488Lard21...537Bread102½.059753Butter23...434——————————Total20½.5437,948==================Total for day20½1.14513,885==================Total for one man13.2853,471
MenuVII.—For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.
Food materials.Weight.Cost.Protein.FuelValue.Breakfast.Lbs.Oz.Cents.Pounds.Calories.Oatmeal062.059697Skim milk, 1 pint101½.034170Sugar2½...232Bread (homemade)103.0951,205Sausage106.0801,358Butter (24 cents per pound)11½...217——————————Total14½.2683,879Dinner.Beef flank, stew2815.4302,988Potatoes (60 cents per bushel)303.054975Cabbage121.013105Cornmeal pudding:Cornmeal4½.022414Skim milk, 1 quart203.068340Molasses121.020987——————————Total22½.6045,889Supper.Beef, warmed in gravy183.086598Hot biscuit206.3402,600Butter23...434Milk, 1 quart206.033325——————————Total18.2593,957==================Total per day551.1343,645==================Total for one man14.2853,411
Discussion of the Menus.
These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided. The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials, oatmealand other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these substances as purchased.
The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.
The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14 cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents; bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart); skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese, 16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2 to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents (20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).
It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of the country than in the central and western portions, where meats, cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can be purchased much cheaper than hereindicated, while on the other hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their abundance and cost.
Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course, different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These figures express only general averages and are based upon the best information accessible.
A Few Points to be Considered in Planning Meals.
Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day, leaving such articles of food as soup—which is a valuable stimulant after a day of hard work—fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal, when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk orstrainedtea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.
Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words, food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work. Supper in such casesshould consist of a good broth or well made soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings, fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.
On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room, and where little exercise is taken.[5]Care should be taken in planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry, griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable for luncheon.
Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See p. 153.)
Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.
Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently hurry away to their work in the morningwithout taking a substantial breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active exercise for any length of time.
Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel. The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long, slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in both food and fuel may be exercised.
FOOTNOTE:
[5]The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen, etc.
[5]The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen, etc.
In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility, etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent illustrations and comparisons should be made.
Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.
Why do we eat food?
What is nitrogenous food?
What is its chief office?
Where is it to be found?
In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?
What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?
Of what is it composed?
Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?
Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?
Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?
What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming compounds?
What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?
Give their use?
Where are they to be found?
What is common salt?
Where is it found?
Why do we use it?
Give the three digestive juices.
What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?
Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in the dust bin or garbage pail?
What should be done with them?
Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?
Give another name for these foods?
Why are they so called?
What is combustion?
How do these foods produce force, etc.?
What other elements do these foods contain?
Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or sugar?
What elements unite and form water?
What is the proportion of water in the body?
Give its use?
Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?
Why does starch need cooking?
To what kingdom does it belong?
Which section is of most value?
How is starch changed into sugar?
What changes food into blood?
What gives the red color to blood?
What mineral helps digestion most?
What is sugar?
What causes sugar to ferment?
What is the result?
Where is it to be found?
What are food adjuncts?
Of what value are they?
Give the names of combustible nutrients.
Give the names of incombustible nutrients.
For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?
What supports combustion?
What is chemically pure water?
What causes the hardness of water?
What is gluten?
What is dextrine?
Where is it found?
In what way does dextrine differ from starch?
What is decomposition?
Lesson.
Note.—After this each teacher must arrange lessons according to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.
Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof. Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.
Outline I.
The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school. The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season of the year.
It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so that there is a constant review of principles already established; and to give practical work of increasing difficulty.
The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.
1. Simple experiments in combustion—to illustrate the structure of stoves and the care of such stoves. Studyof the fuel and apparatus to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus; comparison with other apparatus.
2. Utensils—what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.
Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter, croutons may be made.
3. Measuring—experiment with the cooking of starch in water; cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.
4. A cereal and a fruit,—say, baked apples. In the cereal, in addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.
5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.
If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this may be given in the next lesson.
6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions, several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of soup.
7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain omelet.
8. Eggs and milk.
9. Oysters.
10. Fish.
11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given for sake of variety.
14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.
15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.
18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.
20. Beverages.
21. Salads.
22. Desserts.
23. A breakfast.
24. A luncheon.
25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.
Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them; bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving; dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.
OutlineII.
This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals. The plan can be followed in a longer course.
Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc.
1. A cereal and fruit.
2. Eggs.
3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.
4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.
5. A breakfast.
6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.
7. A made dish of meat or fish.
8. Salad and dressing.
9. Muffins or biscuit.
10. A luncheon or supper.
11. Vegetables. Macaroni.
12. Meat.
13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.
14. Bread or rolls.
15. A dinner.