FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:1The cranial indices on one of these islands varied from 70 to 83. The excessive claims of craniometry have been severely but justly rebuked by Moriz Wagner, in his thoughtful work,Die Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung, s. 528, sq. (Basel, 1889), and more forcibly censured by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I., ss. 84-88. The French school of anthropologists have been especially one-sided in their devotion to this one element of the science. Among other great naturalists, Charles Darwin was careful to point out the variability of the skull as an anatomical part. (The Descent of Man, p. 26.)2Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 56. The anatomical cause of elongated or short skulls is the earlier union of either the transverse or longitudinal sutures, thus forcing the growth to be in the other direction. (L. Holden,Human Osteology, p. 127). Of course, this begins in fœtal life; and Pruner Bey had observed children with different forms of the skull born of the same mother. (Oscar Peschel,Völkerkunde, s. 80).3See Dr. Emil Schmidt,Anthropologische Methoden, s. 221. This is a valuable handbook for the student of anthropology.4An interesting study of this subject has been made by Dr. F. C. Ribbe,L’Ordre d’Obliteration des Sutures du Crane dans les Races Humaines(Paris, 1885).5For a careful paper on this point see Dr. Washington Matthews, in theAmerican Anthropologist, Oct., 1889.6Instead of these terms the Germans use:Chamaekonch=orbitalindexbelow 80Mesokonch=““80-85.Hypsikonch=““above 85.The French expressions are preferable.7W. H. Flower, inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XIV., p. 183.8The “Lemurian reversion” in human dentition brought forward some years ago as a racial indication by Professor E. D. Cope has been largely negatived by the later researches of Dr. Harrison Allen.See Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1890; also, Virchow,Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1886, s. 400, sq.9L. Holden,Human Osteology, pp. 188, 189.10More accurately, the pigment cells in man are in the deeper layer of therete mucosum Malpighii. Cf. A. Kölliker, “Ueber die Entstehung des Pigments in den Oberhautgebilden,” in theZeitschrift für wissensch. Zoölogie, Bd. XLV., s. 713 sq.11This was the result of numerous autopsies during the American civil war. Some dissections reported by M. T. Chudzinski seem to show that the liver of the negro is smaller than that of the white. (Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 275). But its relative size to the lungs is the question at issue. The comparative splanchnology of the different races has yet to be worked out.12Dr. John Beddoe in England, Topinard in France, and Virchow in Germany, have been especially active in obtaining these statistics.13L. Testut, inL’Homme, 1884, p. 377.14InArchivio per l’Antropologia, 1885.15See Topinard, “Le Canon des Proportions du Corps de l’Homme Européen,” inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1889, p. 392.16An instructive article on this subject is that of Alphonse de Candolle, “Les Types brun et blond au point de vue de la Santé,” in theRevue d’Anthropologie, May, 1887.17A number of striking instances have been collected by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I., s. 141. Dr. Max Bartels, in theZeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1888, s. 183, establishes this rule: “The higher the race, the less the tolerance of surgical disease; and in the same race, the lower the culture, the greater the tolerance.”18Solomon’s Song, Chap. VII., v. 4, etc.19See “The Wooing of Emer,” translated by Kuno Meyer, inThe Archæological Journal, Vol. I., p. 68 sq.20C. P. Tiele,History of the Egyptian Religion, pp. 93, 95, etc.21The most valuable study upon it is that by the late Moriz Wagner, printed in his volumeDie Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung(Basel, 1889).22Some excellent remarks on this subject are offered by Elie Reclus, in his discussion of marriage among the Australians, inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 20, sq.23On the interesting questions of the recurrence of red hair and albinos in various races, consult Richard Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, ss. 238, 261. (Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889).24The alleged examples are satisfactorily set aside by Dr. Wilhelm Schneider,Die Naturvölker, Bd. II., ss. 425, sqq. (Paderborn, 1886.)25Much of this seeming violence is “ceremonial,” as I have already observed (page 44); but what I wish now to emphasize is that the marriage is without show of affection.26D. G. Brinton, “The Conception of Love in some American Languages,” inEssays of an Americanist, p. 410, sq. (Philadelphia, 1890.)27For numerous examples, see Dr. Wilhelm Schneider’s work,Die Naturvölker, Th. II., ss. 290, 294, etc.28Our countryman, Lewis H. Morgan, was the first to place this subject in its true light in his workAncient Society(New York, 1878). He doubtless carried the theory too far in certain directions, but in others it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by historians.29See M. Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern,” inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1885, s. 105.30See “The Earliest Form of Human Speech as revealed by American Tongues,” in myEssays of an Americanist, p. 390. (Philadelphia, 1890).31“On the Origin of Language,” inProceedings of the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 279.32The proof of this is furnished by Gustav Roskof,Das Religionswesen der Rohesten Naturvölker(Leipzig, 1880), and Wilhelm Schneider,Die Naturvölker, II. Theil (Paderborn, 1886). The assertions to the contrary by Herbert Spencer, Sir John Lubbock, and various French writers, arise from a lack of study of the evidence, or a misunderstanding of terms.33I have endeavored to show this, so far as it applies to native American religions, in my volume,American Hero-Myths(Philadelphia, 1882).34See my Essay,The Cradle of the Semites(Philadelphia, 1890), and Sir Daniel Wilson, “Trade and Commerce in the Stone Age,” inTrans. Royal Soc. Canada, 1889.35This is shown not only by the presence of artefacts and shells from the Pacific in old graves on the Atlantic coast, but by the well-preserved traditions of the Eastern tribes. See myEssays of an Americanist, p. 188 (Philadelphia, 1890).36Such at any rate is the opinion expressed last year (1889) by the most celebrated living anthropologic anatomist, Professor Virchow, in an address before the German Anthropological Association. (Correspondenz Blatt der Deutschen Anthrop. Gesell., Sept., 1889, s. 96.) Except for the weight of his great name, I should hesitate to say as much; and as it is, I entertain some doubts as to the accuracy of the statement.37This is the result of the most recent researches. See Prof. J. N. Woldrich’s paper, “Ueber die palaeolithische Zeit Mittel-Europas,” in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesell. für Anthropologie, 1889, p. 110, sq. AlsoVerhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1884, s. 530, for the absence of the old stone age in Siberia, a fact which also tells heavily against the first peopling of America from that region.38G. de Mortillet,Le Préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 120. (Paris, 1883.) A. Gaudry,Le Dryopithèque(Paris, 1890).39Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 155. (New York, 1883).40For the details of these features, see the work of E. Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I., s. 371, 768, etc. (Leipzig, 1885.)41On the recent connection of North Africa with Europe, see A. R. Wallace,The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. I., pp. 38, 39; De Mortillet,Le Prehistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 225. “Even in post-tertiary times,” writes Huxley (Physiography, p. 308), “Africa was united to Europe at the Straits of Gibraltar and across by Malta and Sicily. The Sahara is an old sea bottom, which was below water at a comparatively recent period.” “The Atlas mountains,” remarks Suess, “belong to the intricate orographic system of Europe.” (Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I., s. 462.)42Emile CartailhacLes Ages Préhistoriques de l’Espagne et du Portugal, pp. 24-30 (Paris, 1886).43Comp. Dr. Bleicher and Sir John Lubbock in theJournal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. X., p. 318; Dr. R. Collignon inBulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, p. 676, sq.44See the article of C. Zittel, “Sur les silex taillés trouvës dans le desert Libyque,” inCongrès Internat. d’Anthropologie et d’Archéologie, 1874, pp. 78, etc.45See W. D. Gooch, “The Stone Age of South Africa,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1881, p. 173, sq., and various later reports and discussions in the same periodical.46This opinion was long ago expressed by the distinguished geologist, d’ Omalius d’ Halloy: “Tout nous porte á croire que les differences que presente le genre humain remontent á un ordre de choses antérieur á l’état actuel du globe terrestre.”Des Races Humaines, p. 11 (Paris, 1845). This is also the result of recent studies. See Prof. Edward S. Morse, on “Man in the Tertiaries,” in theAmerican Naturalist, 1884, p. 1010.47Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 273. (London, 1880.)48See A. Bastian,Zur Lehre von den Geographischen Provinzen(Berlin, 1886); A. De Quatrefages,Histoire Generale des Races Humaines, p. 333, (Paris, 1889); Dr. Thomas Achelis,Die Entwickelung der Modernen Ethnologie, s. 65, (Berlin, 1889). Agassiz was the first to announce (in 1850) that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the same zoölogical provinces as those inhabited by distinct species and genera of mammals. This fact is coming more and more to be the accepted axiom for the study of racial development. (Compare Darwin,Descent of Man, p. 169).49This calculation includes in Asia the Arabian peninsula, Syria, the Iranic regions, most of Asia Minor and the Caucasus; but excludes Hindostan, the occupation of which by the Aryans is within the historic period. In Africa it embraces the tract from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from the Mediterranean to the Sudan, nearly all of which was held by the Hamitic peoples when we first learn about it. In Europe it includes the whole continent south of a line drawn from the mouth of the Volga, through St. Petersburg to the Atlantic.50One of the leading European students of anatomical racial type is Dr. J. Kollmann, of Basle. He claims that there are four fundamental skull types in that continent:1. Narrow faced, brachycephalic.2. Narrow faced, dolichocephalic.3. Broad faced, brachycephalic.4. Broad faced, dolichocephalic.These forms he believes have been steadily perpetuated and have undergone no change, except by intermarrying; they bear no relation to intellectual ability, and they recur in nations of the same language, customs and history. “Ethnic unity in Europe rests not upon racial identity, but racial (anatomical) diversity.”Verhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 332.51A more appropriate view was taken by Canon Isaac Taylor at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889. He defended the thesis that the human race originated in Europe and bifurcated into the Asian and African branches. (SeeNature, 1889, No. 40, p. 632.)52For a recent summary of the evidence on this point consult Isaac Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 129, sq. (London, 1890.)53See Freidrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. III., s. 224-5; Sayce,Science of Language, Vol. II., page 178. The latter uses the expression that between the old Egyptian, the Libyan, and the Semitic tongues “the grammatical agreement is most striking.”54On the Guanches, consult the various works of Sabin Berthelot, Dr. Verneau, and later J. Harris Stone inProceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1888, p. 851. The last-mentioned dwells on the many similarities of their arts to those of the Egyptians.55Barth is of opinion that the Berbers conquered the Sahara, not from blacks, but “from the sub-Libyan race, the Leucæthiopes of the ancients, with whom they intermarried” (Travels in Africa, Vol. I., 340). This is, I think, the correct opinion, and not that the Sahara was occupied by the negroes.56Ritter,Erdkunde, Bd. I., s. 561.57Walter B. Harris, inProceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889, p. 490.58For numerous authorities, see Sabin Berthelot,Bulletin de la Société d’ Ethnologie, 1845, p. 121, sq., and hisAntiquités Canariennes(Paris, 1879).59The early Greek geographer known as Scylax, also speaks of the Libyan men as blondes, and very handsome. For a recent and able discussion of this subject, consult F. Borsari,Geografica Ethnologica e Storica della Tripolitana, p. 23, sq. (Naples, 1888). The French writers Broca, Faidherbe, etc., have also written copiously on the Libyan blondes.60TheTahennu. Rawlinson,History of Ancient Egypt, Vol. II. p. 292.61As distinguished from the Arab, Pruner Bey described the Kabyle as “of higher stature, cerebral and facial cranium broader, forehead more vertical, eyebrows less arched, jaws more orthognathic.” My own studies in Algeria lead me to recognize the correctness of these distinctions. Dr. R. Collignon describes what he thinks is the most ancient Tunisian type as tall, dolichocephalic (73), mesorrhinic (75), narrow face, forehead and chin retreating. He says of the blonde element in Tunisia that it is “assez rare, mais un peu partout.”Bull. de la Soc. d’ Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, pp. 620, 621.62Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1888, s. 115.63Yet Barth mentions that in the western Sahara one of the most powerful of the Berber tribes was calledAurághen, the yellow, or the gold-colored.Travels in Africa, vol. i, pp. 230, 339.64See Broca, “Sur les blondes, et les monuments megalithiques de l’Afrique du Nord,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1876; and Faidherbe,Collection Compléte d’ Inscriptions Numidiques, Introduction. (Paris, 1870.)65In offering this new derivation of the much discussed name Berberi or Barbari, one must remember that it has always been the name of a powerful tribe in Morocco, the Brebres; that it was what the ancient Egyptians called them (Herodotus); and that it is to-day a pure Libyan word.Iberru, is from the verbal rootibra, they are free;ibarbar, they come forth (Newman,Libyan Vocabulary, pp. 40, 133). The plural in the Hamitic group was originally formed by repetition (F. Müller,Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. III., s. 240). Hence Berberi may mean either “those who came forth,”i. e., emigrants, or those who go where they list,i. e., freemen. This is also the meaning ofamóshagh, the generic name of the Touaregs (Barth,Travels in Africa, vol. v., page 555). Barth, a high authority, believes that the same wordberis the radical of the names Bernu, Berdoa, Berauni, etc. The legendary ancestors of the Moroccan Berbers (Brebres) was Ber, in which, says Barth, “we recognize the name Afer,” thefandbbeing interchangeable in these dialects. From “Afer” we have “Africa” (Travels, vol. i., p. 224). One of the principal gods of ancient Libya and of the Guanches was Abŏra, or Ibru. See my article “On Etruscan and Libyan Names” inProceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Feb., 1890. One of the Pindaric fragments recites a Libyan tradition to the effect that the first man, Iarbas, sprang from the sun-heated soil, and chose for food the sweet acorns of the tree (Lenormant,The Beginnings of History, p. 48). In “Iarbas” we can scarcely fail in recognizing the same rootbar, the change being by the familiar process of reversal.66Early in this century, Bory de St. Vincent maintained the identity of the Iberians and Berbers (Essai Geologique, Paris, 1805). Humboldt argued that there was but one language in old Spain beside the Celtic, in spite of the direct assertion of Strabo to the contrary, and the well-known fact that many Celtiberic inscriptions cannot be read either in Celtic or Basque (Prüfung der Untersuchungen, etc., § 39).The Roman geographer, Rufus Festus Avienus, offers the important correction that the Iberi derived their name, not from the Ebro, as is usually stated, but from a stream close to Gibraltar on the Atlantic side.“At Iberus inde manat amnis et locosFœcundat undã: plurimi ex ipso feruntDictos Iberos, non ab illo flumineQuod inquietos Vasconas prælabitur.”—Ora Maritima.The two names show that it was anomen gentile, and that the tribe so known extended along the southern coast.It has been recently asserted that many north African place-names occur in Spain (Revista de Anthropologia, Madrid, 1876, quoted by Fligier).67The Coptic word isNa-pa-ut, Bunsen,Egypt’s Place in History, Vol. III, p. 137.68This war is recorded in the celebrated “inscription of Menephtah,” of the XIXth dynasty. SeeRecords of the Past, Vol. IV; Brugsch Bey,History of Egypt, Vol. II, p. 129, and the more recent studies of these inscriptions by Dr. Max Müller, in theProceedings of the Society for Biblical Archæology, Vol. VI.69As further showing the ancient culture of the Libyans, I may note that they constructed stone dwellings before their conquest by the Romans. For extracts showing this, seeRevue des deux Mondes, Dec., 1865.70The evidence to this effect I have marshalled in two papers read before the American Philosophical Society: “On the Ethnic Affinities of the Ancient Etruscans” (Proceedings of the Amer. Phil. Soc., Oct., 1889), and “A Comparison of Etruscan and Libyan Names” (Ibid., Feb., 1890).71The most scholarly analysis of this curious alphabet, called thetifinaghortifinar, will be found in Prof. Halevy’sEssai d’ Epigraphie Libyque(Paris, 1875).72See Duveyrier,Les Touaregs du Nord, p. 339; H. Bissuell,Les Touaregs de l’ Ouest, pp. 106, 115 (Alger., 1888), etc.73Hooker and Ball,Tour in Morocco, p. 86.74To Prof. A. H. Sayce is, I think, due the honor of showing that the pre-Semitic white race of Palestine was of the Libyan stock. SeeNature, 1888, p. 321. He had previously pointed out that the two forms of tenses of the Libyan verb “correspond most remarkably with Assyrian forms” (Introduction to the Science of Language, Vol. II., p. 180). Rawlinson, in hisStory of Phenicia(N. Y., 1889), adopts the view that the early Phenicians were Hamites. The epochal discovery of Halevy, now accepted by Delitzsch and other Assyriologists, that the “second” column of the cuneiform inscription is merely a Hamito-Semitic dialect in another character, finally destroys the “Turanian” hypothesis, and restores the ancient Assyrians to the Eurafrican race.75Virchow, after close studies in Egypt, expressed himself very positively that the affinities of the old Egyptian stock were “with the Hamites, with the Berbers and Kabyles, the peoples who from the remotest times have inhabited the regions of the Atlas.” See his address in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888, p. 110.76On the stone age in Egypt, see General Pitt-Rivers, inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1881, p. 387, sq.; and especially the exhaustive article by Dr. Virchow inVerhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1888, p. 345, sq. As early as 1881 Prof. Henry W. Haynes of Boston announced his discovery of palæolithic stone implements in Upper Egypt. (Mems. of the Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Vol. X., p. 357.) The latest contribution to the subject is by W. Reiss,Funde aus der Steinzeit Aegyptens(Berlin, 1890).77M. G. de Lapouge goes quite as far. He writes (Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 308), “L’Egypte s’est civilisée pendant notre quaternaire, et son plus grand developpement a coincidé avec notre epoque néolithique.”78“Jusqu’a cette heure,” writes A. L. Delattre, in theBulletin des Antiquités Africaines, 1885, p. 242, “les pieces archéologiques de notre collection de Carthage, qui remontent incontestablement à la période primitive de l’histoire de cette ville fameuse, ont toutes le cachet egyptien prononcé.”79Dr. L. Faurot, inRevue d’Ethnographie, 1887, p. 57.80See my essay on this subject,The Cradle of the Semites(Philadelphia, 1890); also the able paper of G. Bertin, “On the Origin of the Semites,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1882, p. 423, sq., and the speculations of R. G. Haliburton, inProceedings of the British Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 907. An excellent summary of the argument that the Semites came from Africa will be found in Gifford Palgrave’s article on Arabia in theEncyclopedia Britannica.81The important Berber folk of the Mzabites in Southern Algiers are said strongly to resemble Semites, presenting “a reunion of the secondary characteristics of the Jews and Arabs.”Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 353.82The late investigations of E. Glaser in Southern Arabia have brought many hundreds of these inscriptions to our knowledge.83Doughty,Travels in Arabia Deserta, Vol. I., p. 102. About five per cent. of the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai are pure blondes. SeeRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 351.84The statistics in Central Europe show that among the Jews there, about 15 per cent. are true blondes, 25 per cent. brunettes, and the remainder intermediate. The blondes are generally dolichocephalic, the brunettes brachycephalic or medium. See Dr. Fligier, “Zur Anthropologie der Semiten,” inMitthiel. der Wiener Anthrop. Gesell., Bd. IX., s. 155, sq.85Compare Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 98, and Paul Broca,Sur l’Origine et la Repartition de la Langue Basque, Paris (1875). Broca recognized the autochthony of the Basque in Spain, and considered their language the oldest in Europe.86Called by the French craniologiststête de lièvre. De Quatrefages identified certain skulls from kitchen-middens in Portugal as of this form, indicating that the Euskaric peoples once extended that far west.Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, p. 478.87See on this point the detailed comparisons in Heinrich Winkler’sUral-altaische Völker und Sprachen, ss. 155-167, and elsewhere. The attempted identifications of Basques and Berbers by Dr. Tubino (Los Aborigines Ibericos, Madrid, 1876) is therefore a failure.88I should prefer the term “Celtindic” to either of the others. “Aryan,” or Aryac, suggested by Prof. Max Müller from a Sanscrit root, signifies “noble,” “superior.” It is open to several objections, but I have adopted it on account of its popularity.89The European bronze age, for instance, was not introduced by the Indo-Aryac peoples, as their early art-forms in bronze are quite distinct, and their alloy different, the Asian bronze being a zinc, the European a tin alloy. See on this R. Virchow in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der deutchen Gesell. für Anthropologie, 1889, s. 94.90See d’Halloy’s articles in theBulletins de l’Academie Royale de Belgique, beginning with Vol. VI (1839); especially in 1848 his “Observations sur la Distribution ancienne des peuples de la race blanche.” Dr. Latham first stated this view in an Appendix, dated 1859, to an article on “The original extent of the Slavonic area.” See hisOpuscula, pp. 127-28 (London, 1860). I observe that Dr. John Beddoe, in his last address before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain this year, 1890, repeats the statement: “The first anthropologist of note who took up the notion of the European origin of the Aryans was Dr. Robert Latham” (Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1890, p. 491). On the contrary, d’Halloy, in the “Observations” above quoted (p. 9), urges that the “Indo-Germanic” languages point to a kinship of those who speak them, and that they always have been in Europe, and did not come from Asia.91A. De Candolle,Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 265, sq. This is ingeniously explained on the mechanical theory of mixing colors by d’Halloy.Obs. sur la Distrib. de la Race Blanche, p. 11. (Bruxelles, 1848.) Compare also R. Virchow,Die Verbreitung des blonden und des brunetten Typus in Mitteleuropa, who attributes the increase of brunette’s to a reversion to “Celtic or pre-Celtic ancestry.”92This opinion has also been defended by Fligier,Zur praehistorischen Ethnologie Italiens, p. 55.93Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 259.94See his remarkable essay, published in 1821, entitledPrüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittlest der Vaskischen Sprache, § 47.95In his latest work, Dr. Abel avers that the old Egyptian and Indo-European stocks have as many radicals in common as the idioms of the latter have among themselves.Ægyptisch-Europaeische Sprachverwandtschaft, s. 58 (Leipzig, 1890).96See Karl Brugman,Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic Languages, Vol. I., pp. 13, 14; Wharton,Etyma Latina, Introduction.97See Dr. Fligier,Zur praehistorischen Ethnologie Italiens(Wien 1877). There is a markedly brachycephalic type among the Albanians, quite dissimilar from the Greek. I incline to believe it is Celtic. See Dr. Raphael Zampa, “Anthropologie Illyrienne,” in theRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 625, sq.98See Max Duncker,History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 11.99Ibid., pp. 13, 142.100Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 98.101The Phrygian was about as closely related to the Greek as Gothic to middle High German. See Curtius,History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 43, who acknowledges that the testimony of antiquity is in favor of the easterly migration of the Hellenic peoples, but denies the fact because it is in conflict with his Asiatic hypothesis.102The Cypriote Greeks used a remarkable syllabic alphabet of great antiquity. R. H. Lang,Cyprus, pp. 8, 12 (London, 1878).103On this important subject see Max Duncker,History of Greece, Vol. I, Chap. IV, “The Phenicians in Hellas;” and H. Schliemann,Tiryns, pp. 28, 57, etc.104Hovelacque et Hervé,Precis d’Anthropologie, p. 573.105This is the opinion of Penka, Schrader, Taylor, etc.106“The Lithuanian language has more antique features by far than any other now spoken dialect of the whole great (Aryac) family.” W. D. Whitney,Oriental and Linguistic Studies, Vol. II, p. 228.107In North Germany the present percentage of blondes is 42; in the German empire, 32; in Austria, 20; in Switzerland, 11. (Virchow,Die Verbreitung des blonden und des brunetten Typus in Mitteleuropa.)108On the extreme diversity of skull-forms among the modern Russians seeRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1889, p. 99. The race of the “Kurgans,” or ancient tombs, which are supposed to date back to the ninth or tenth century, had usually long skulls; but about 20 per cent. are short. Hervé is quite right in his statement, “Il n’y a pas un type général slave, il n’y a même pas un type slave du nord et un type slave du sud.”Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 564.109Cf. Gesa Kuun, “L’ Origine des Nationalités de la Transylvanie,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1888, pp. 232, sqq.110Omalius d’Halloy has called attention to the statement of Potocki,Voyages, p. 167, that the Ossetes, by their own traditions, came from southeastern Russia, on the river Don. They are generally blondes of the brachycephalic Slavonic type.111Cf. Louis Rousselet,Les Afghans, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1888, p, 412.112Sanscrit civilization extended throughout most of Farther India and Malasia, and at one time had one of its chief seats in Cambodia, where the ruins of magnificent palaces decorated with subjects from the Ramayana attest its presence. See Abel Bergaigne, “Sur l’Histoire Ancienne du Cambodge,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 477, sq.113A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands, p. 2. (4to, Gotha, 1878.)114“Everything goes to prove,” writes de Quatrefages, “that the Caucasus was not a center ofemigration, but ofimmigrationby various peoples at a comparatively late date.” (Histoire Generale des Races Humaines, p. 475.) The researches of Rudolph Virchow result in showing that these mountains were peopled at about the beginning of the age of bronze.115This is the result of the observations of Ernest Chantre, who spent years in personal investigations throughout the Caucasus. (Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase, quoted inRevue d’ Anthropologie,1888, p. 480.) Virchow reached the same conclusion from his osteologic studies (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, 1887, p. 97.) It is high time therefore to stop talking about the “Caucasian” race.116For a full discussion of this subject consult de Quatrefages,Les Pygmées des anciens et de la science moderne, Paris, 1886.117See the very detailed observations of Emin Bey in theZeitschrift fur Ethnologié, 1886, s. 145. The hairy skin is also mentioned by Du Chaillu.118Dr. K. Schweinfurth,The Heart of Africa, vol. i., p. 139; and Fritsch,Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1887, s 195.119Leclerc, “Les Pygmées à Madagascar,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1887, p. 323.120Theodore Hahn, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, P. 272.121See M. Ploix, “Les Hottentots et leur Religion,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, p. 271, sq.122Dr. L. Tautain, “Sur l’ Ethnographie du Sénégal,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 61, sq.123See Th. Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. II, ss. 476-8.124See Dr. Frederich Müller,Die Æquatoriale Sprach-Familie in Central Afrika, Wien, 1889.125The wordbantuin that language means “people” or “men.” It is preferable to “Caffres,” which is sometimes applied to the group, and which is an Arabic term meaning “infidels.”126These traditions are briefly presented by de Quatrefages,Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, pp. 371, sqq.127Grandel,Ethnography, p. 335.128These are found in Bechuana land at Zimbabye. See John Mackenzie,Austral Africa, Vol. I., p. 35 (London, 1887.)129Except the Bushman and Hottentots and Negrillos, all the African tribes seem to have long known the working of iron. See Dr. F. Delisle, “Sur la Fabrication du fer dans l’ Afrique Equatoriale,” in theRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1884, p. 465.130On the geographical domain of the Mandingoes, see a careful note by Dr. Toutain in theRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1886, p. 515.131Cf. A. R. Wallace,Geographical Distribution of Animals.132This is Mantegazza’s opinion,Archivio per l’Antropologia, 1888, p. 121, sq.133D’Escayrac de Lauture,Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, p. 64 (Paris, 1877).134D’Escayrac de Lauture,Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, pp. 18-20 (Paris, 1877).135A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands, ss. 20-24.136Nicholas Seeland, “Les Kirghis,” inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1886, p. 27.137The best recent authority is Dr. Heinrich Winkler,Uralaltaische Völker und Sprachen. (Berlin, 1884.)138Note on the Lapps of Finmark, p. 8. (Paris, 1886.)139A. H. Keane,Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XV., p. 218.140N. A. E. de Nordenskjold, inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1884, p. 402; also A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands. 12 (Gotha, 1878).141I have followed in this obscure subject W. H. Dall, “On the so-called Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia” in theAmerican Naturalist, 1881, p. 857. Rittich says, erroneously, that the Namollos are not related to the Chukchis. (Die Ethnographie Russland,s. 15.) The relationship of the Chukchi, Korak and Kamschatkan is demonstrated by Heinrich Winkler,Uralaltäische Völker und Sprachen, s. 120.142J. Deniker,Les Ghiliaks d’après les derniers Renseignements, pp. 5, 17. (Paris, 1884.)143The date of the foundation of the Japanese ecclesiastical empire is put at 660B.C.D’Escayrac de Lauture,La Chine et les Chinois, Vol. I, p. 17.144For details, see Hovelacque et Hervé,Precis d’ Anthropologie, p. 468-470.145An admirable analysis of the physical traits of the Japanese will be found in theJournal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. VI., written by Benjamin Smith Lyman, long a resident among them.146This subject has been presented with great amplitude of illustration by the late Moritz Wagner. SeeDie Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung, Basel, 1889.147Dr. Finsch, for instance, mentions that on the little island of Tanna, in Melanesia, nearly every village has a dialect unintelligible to its neighbors.Anthrop. Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 38. (Berlin, 1884.)148This lost continent is sometimes called Gondwana land, from the recurrence of the Gondwana formation in Hindostan, Madagascar, and the east coast of Africa. See Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. ii.149The wordaëtais Malayan, and means “black.” There is some doubt about the Semangs, as some of them are fair. SeeJournal of the Anthropological Institute,1886, p. 429, and compare F. de Castelnau in theRevue de philologie et d’ ethnographie, 1876, p. 174, sq.150The Susians in the lower valley of the Euphrates show in color and hair an infusion of Negro blood, but this is attributable to the introduction of slaves into that region from Africa. (Cf.Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1888, p. 79.)151For an excellent study of the Andaman islanders, see E. H. Man, inJournal of Anthropological Institute, Vol. XII., etc. F. Blumentritt describes the Negritos of the Philippines with head and features thoroughly Negro like. (Ethnographie der Philippinen, s. 5, Gotha, 1882.)152Dr. J. Montano, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 691; F. Blumentritt,Ethnographie der Philippinen, s. 7. (Gotha, 1882.) The description applies principally to the Negritos of these islands, where they number about 10,000 persons.153Flower, “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the Andaman Islands,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1880, p. 132. The same position is taken by James Dallas, in theProceedings of the British Naturalists’ Society, 1884. He argues that the Negritos, Papuas and African Negroes belong to one family, the “Melanochroic,” which in view of the continuity and isolation of the region it occupies must originally have been a unit.154See A. B. Meyer, inMittheilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen Gesellschaft,1874; and A. R. Wallace, Australasia, pp. 452-456. The great diversity in color, hair, etc., is commented on by Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, p. 34. The difference is sometimes by villages, some being quite fair and called “white Papuas,” though of pure blood ostensibly.155See Rev. L. Ella, “A Comparison of the Malayan and Papuan Races of Polynesia,” inProceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. I. (1888), p. 484, sq. The author writes from 26 years’ intercourse with the various islanders. He claims that the Papuas “have distinctly African resemblances, habits, customs, languages, and religions.”156These singular facts are fully supported by the studies of Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 34, sq.157See Fr. Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 160.158Horatio Hale,Ethnog. and Philol. of the U. S. Exploring Exped., p. 44.159In theVerhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 162.160See Friedrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. I., Ab. II., s. 30; Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 160.161M. O. Beauregard has compared 120 common words and numerals in dialects from Madagascar to Easter Island, and proves that all are affined to the pure Malay, though with many verbal admixtures from other sources.Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie, 1886, pp. 520-527.162“On ne peut guère mettre en doute que les vrais Malais appartiennent au groupe des races à petite taille et à tête plus ou moins ronde de l’Asie.” Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 470.163See Friedrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 1-3.164Compare Fr. Ratzel,Völkerkunde, Bd. II., s. 371. Dr. Hamy and Mr. Keane have questioned the relationship of the Battaks.165Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 1. (Berlin, 1884.)166A. Thompson, “On the Osteology of the Veddahs,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1889. “Veddah” in Sanscrit means “hunter.”167On the inhabitants of Boru, see G. W. Earl,Native races of the Indian Archipelago, p. 185.168Other Hypotheses about the Polynesians are that they are an autochthonous race developed in New Zealand (Lesson et Martinet,Les Polynésiens, Paris, 1884); that they came from America; that they are of Aryac descent (Fornander).The migrations of the Polynesians have been closely studied by Horatio Hale,Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, pp. 116-196 (1847). Many later writers have pursued the subject.169The sacred legends and rites of the Polynesians have been collected by Bastian,Inselgruppen in Oceanien(Berlin, 1883), and other writers.170Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 19.171De Quatrefages found the Australian sub-type of skull reappearing among the Dravidians, and he goes so far as to add, “The affinity of the Australian and Dravidian languages is now universally admitted.”Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, p. 333. He quotes the authority of Maury; but Fr. Müller thinks the analogies “too weak” to be convincing. (Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft.Bd. II., s. 95-98.)172Dr. Friedrich Ratzel acknowledges the probable inroads of Malays in southern India, but condemns classing the Dravidas with the Australians.Völkerkunde, Bd. III., s. 411 (Leipzig, 1888).173Wake, “The Papuans and Polynesians,” inJour. of the Anthrop. Institute, Nov., 1882.174This is the positive statement of Geo. W. Earl, who had seen Tasmanians. (Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, p. 188. London, 1853.) It is contradicted by Dr. Hamy, in theCrania Ethnica, for no other reason, apparently, than that it does not fit his theories.175“The cast of the face is between the African and Malay types.” H. Hale,Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, p. 107. Mr. Hale describes their hair as “long, fine and wavy, like that of Europeans,” the color usually a dark brown.176Edwin N. Curr,The Australian Race, Vol. III., p. 675 (London, 1887).177Elisée Reclus, “Contributions à la Sociologie des Australiens,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887.178For abundant authorities see A. Bastian,Inselgruppen in Oceanien, ss. 121, 122 (Berlin, 1883).179Cf. A. T. Packard, “Notes on the Labrador Eskimos,” inAmerican Naturalist, 1885, p. 473.180E. Petitot,Monographie des Déné Dindjié, p. 24 (Paris, 1876).181See F. Michel,Dix huit ans chez les Sauvages(Paris, 1866), and Petitot, ubi supra.182See an article on “The Probable Nationality of the Mound Builders,” in myEssays of an Americanist, p. 67 (Philadelphia, 1890).183Dr. Ten Kate, inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 122.184Life Among the Pi-Utes, by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (Boston, 1883).185Dr. A. Krause,Die Tlinkit Indianer(Jena, 1885).186The tribes of British Columbia have been especially studied by Dr. Franz Boas, who has published extensively upon them.187See D. G. Brinton,American Hero Myths, Chap. III (Philadelphia, 1882).188The Tarascos have been studied with much care by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Michoacan, who has published a number of articles on their antiquities and languages.189S. Habel,The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa(Washington, 1878). Bastian has also written a good account of them (Berlin, 1882).190D. G. Brinton, “On the Alaguilac Language of Guatemala,” inProceedings of the American Philosoph. Soc., 1887.191D. G. Brinton,The Güegüence, a comedy ballet in the Dialect of Nicaragua. Introduction, p. viii. (Philadelphia, 1883).192C. H. Berendt,Bull. of the Amer. Geog. Society, 1876, p. 11.193Karl von der Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, s. 308.194On this complex question compareVerhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1886, s. 703; 1887, s. 532, and elsewhere; Karl von den Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, s. 295, and the work of Von Martius,Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s zumal Brasiliens, Vol. I. (Leipzig, 1867).195The most careful analysis of the Peruvian government is given by Dr. Gustav Brühl,Die Culturvölker Alt-America’s, pp. 369, sq. (Cincinnati, 1887).196Dr. J. Orgeas,La Pathologie des Races Humaines, p. 481 (Paris, 1886).197Authorities in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’Anthropologie, 214, sq.198This is the opinion advocated by de Quatrefages. His arguments will be found in the seventh chapter of hisHistoire Générale des Races Humaines(Paris, 1889).199Dr. J. Orgeas,La Pathologie des Races Humaines, p. 481.200Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 171 (New York, 1883).201Dally, quoted in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 218.202See the question discussed by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I, s. 188.203Quoted in Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 182.204S. N. Clark,Circular of the Bureau of Education, Washington, 1877; Garrick Mallery, inProceedings of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1877, p. 340.205This is the statement of Dr. F. Nansen, the recent explorer of Greenland, and many others.206F. Blumentritt,Die Ethnographie der Phillipinen, s. 8 (Gotha, 1882).207Fr. Ratzel,Völkerkunde, Bd. I, s. 628, who quotes the authority of Du Chaillu.208George Gerland,Anthropologische Beiträge, Bd. I., s. 5 (Halle, 1875).209Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1887, s. 88.

1The cranial indices on one of these islands varied from 70 to 83. The excessive claims of craniometry have been severely but justly rebuked by Moriz Wagner, in his thoughtful work,Die Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung, s. 528, sq. (Basel, 1889), and more forcibly censured by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I., ss. 84-88. The French school of anthropologists have been especially one-sided in their devotion to this one element of the science. Among other great naturalists, Charles Darwin was careful to point out the variability of the skull as an anatomical part. (The Descent of Man, p. 26.)

2Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 56. The anatomical cause of elongated or short skulls is the earlier union of either the transverse or longitudinal sutures, thus forcing the growth to be in the other direction. (L. Holden,Human Osteology, p. 127). Of course, this begins in fœtal life; and Pruner Bey had observed children with different forms of the skull born of the same mother. (Oscar Peschel,Völkerkunde, s. 80).

3See Dr. Emil Schmidt,Anthropologische Methoden, s. 221. This is a valuable handbook for the student of anthropology.

4An interesting study of this subject has been made by Dr. F. C. Ribbe,L’Ordre d’Obliteration des Sutures du Crane dans les Races Humaines(Paris, 1885).

5For a careful paper on this point see Dr. Washington Matthews, in theAmerican Anthropologist, Oct., 1889.

6Instead of these terms the Germans use:Chamaekonch=orbitalindexbelow 80Mesokonch=““80-85.Hypsikonch=““above 85.The French expressions are preferable.

6Instead of these terms the Germans use:

The French expressions are preferable.

7W. H. Flower, inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XIV., p. 183.

8The “Lemurian reversion” in human dentition brought forward some years ago as a racial indication by Professor E. D. Cope has been largely negatived by the later researches of Dr. Harrison Allen.See Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1890; also, Virchow,Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1886, s. 400, sq.

9L. Holden,Human Osteology, pp. 188, 189.

10More accurately, the pigment cells in man are in the deeper layer of therete mucosum Malpighii. Cf. A. Kölliker, “Ueber die Entstehung des Pigments in den Oberhautgebilden,” in theZeitschrift für wissensch. Zoölogie, Bd. XLV., s. 713 sq.

11This was the result of numerous autopsies during the American civil war. Some dissections reported by M. T. Chudzinski seem to show that the liver of the negro is smaller than that of the white. (Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 275). But its relative size to the lungs is the question at issue. The comparative splanchnology of the different races has yet to be worked out.

12Dr. John Beddoe in England, Topinard in France, and Virchow in Germany, have been especially active in obtaining these statistics.

13L. Testut, inL’Homme, 1884, p. 377.

14InArchivio per l’Antropologia, 1885.

15See Topinard, “Le Canon des Proportions du Corps de l’Homme Européen,” inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1889, p. 392.

16An instructive article on this subject is that of Alphonse de Candolle, “Les Types brun et blond au point de vue de la Santé,” in theRevue d’Anthropologie, May, 1887.

17A number of striking instances have been collected by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I., s. 141. Dr. Max Bartels, in theZeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1888, s. 183, establishes this rule: “The higher the race, the less the tolerance of surgical disease; and in the same race, the lower the culture, the greater the tolerance.”

18Solomon’s Song, Chap. VII., v. 4, etc.

19See “The Wooing of Emer,” translated by Kuno Meyer, inThe Archæological Journal, Vol. I., p. 68 sq.

20C. P. Tiele,History of the Egyptian Religion, pp. 93, 95, etc.

21The most valuable study upon it is that by the late Moriz Wagner, printed in his volumeDie Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung(Basel, 1889).

22Some excellent remarks on this subject are offered by Elie Reclus, in his discussion of marriage among the Australians, inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 20, sq.

23On the interesting questions of the recurrence of red hair and albinos in various races, consult Richard Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, ss. 238, 261. (Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889).

24The alleged examples are satisfactorily set aside by Dr. Wilhelm Schneider,Die Naturvölker, Bd. II., ss. 425, sqq. (Paderborn, 1886.)

25Much of this seeming violence is “ceremonial,” as I have already observed (page 44); but what I wish now to emphasize is that the marriage is without show of affection.

26D. G. Brinton, “The Conception of Love in some American Languages,” inEssays of an Americanist, p. 410, sq. (Philadelphia, 1890.)

27For numerous examples, see Dr. Wilhelm Schneider’s work,Die Naturvölker, Th. II., ss. 290, 294, etc.

28Our countryman, Lewis H. Morgan, was the first to place this subject in its true light in his workAncient Society(New York, 1878). He doubtless carried the theory too far in certain directions, but in others it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by historians.

29See M. Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern,” inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1885, s. 105.

30See “The Earliest Form of Human Speech as revealed by American Tongues,” in myEssays of an Americanist, p. 390. (Philadelphia, 1890).

31“On the Origin of Language,” inProceedings of the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 279.

32The proof of this is furnished by Gustav Roskof,Das Religionswesen der Rohesten Naturvölker(Leipzig, 1880), and Wilhelm Schneider,Die Naturvölker, II. Theil (Paderborn, 1886). The assertions to the contrary by Herbert Spencer, Sir John Lubbock, and various French writers, arise from a lack of study of the evidence, or a misunderstanding of terms.

33I have endeavored to show this, so far as it applies to native American religions, in my volume,American Hero-Myths(Philadelphia, 1882).

34See my Essay,The Cradle of the Semites(Philadelphia, 1890), and Sir Daniel Wilson, “Trade and Commerce in the Stone Age,” inTrans. Royal Soc. Canada, 1889.

35This is shown not only by the presence of artefacts and shells from the Pacific in old graves on the Atlantic coast, but by the well-preserved traditions of the Eastern tribes. See myEssays of an Americanist, p. 188 (Philadelphia, 1890).

36Such at any rate is the opinion expressed last year (1889) by the most celebrated living anthropologic anatomist, Professor Virchow, in an address before the German Anthropological Association. (Correspondenz Blatt der Deutschen Anthrop. Gesell., Sept., 1889, s. 96.) Except for the weight of his great name, I should hesitate to say as much; and as it is, I entertain some doubts as to the accuracy of the statement.

37This is the result of the most recent researches. See Prof. J. N. Woldrich’s paper, “Ueber die palaeolithische Zeit Mittel-Europas,” in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesell. für Anthropologie, 1889, p. 110, sq. AlsoVerhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1884, s. 530, for the absence of the old stone age in Siberia, a fact which also tells heavily against the first peopling of America from that region.

38G. de Mortillet,Le Préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 120. (Paris, 1883.) A. Gaudry,Le Dryopithèque(Paris, 1890).

39Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 155. (New York, 1883).

40For the details of these features, see the work of E. Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I., s. 371, 768, etc. (Leipzig, 1885.)

41On the recent connection of North Africa with Europe, see A. R. Wallace,The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. I., pp. 38, 39; De Mortillet,Le Prehistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 225. “Even in post-tertiary times,” writes Huxley (Physiography, p. 308), “Africa was united to Europe at the Straits of Gibraltar and across by Malta and Sicily. The Sahara is an old sea bottom, which was below water at a comparatively recent period.” “The Atlas mountains,” remarks Suess, “belong to the intricate orographic system of Europe.” (Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I., s. 462.)

42Emile CartailhacLes Ages Préhistoriques de l’Espagne et du Portugal, pp. 24-30 (Paris, 1886).

43Comp. Dr. Bleicher and Sir John Lubbock in theJournal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. X., p. 318; Dr. R. Collignon inBulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, p. 676, sq.

44See the article of C. Zittel, “Sur les silex taillés trouvës dans le desert Libyque,” inCongrès Internat. d’Anthropologie et d’Archéologie, 1874, pp. 78, etc.

45See W. D. Gooch, “The Stone Age of South Africa,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1881, p. 173, sq., and various later reports and discussions in the same periodical.

46This opinion was long ago expressed by the distinguished geologist, d’ Omalius d’ Halloy: “Tout nous porte á croire que les differences que presente le genre humain remontent á un ordre de choses antérieur á l’état actuel du globe terrestre.”Des Races Humaines, p. 11 (Paris, 1845). This is also the result of recent studies. See Prof. Edward S. Morse, on “Man in the Tertiaries,” in theAmerican Naturalist, 1884, p. 1010.

47Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 273. (London, 1880.)

48See A. Bastian,Zur Lehre von den Geographischen Provinzen(Berlin, 1886); A. De Quatrefages,Histoire Generale des Races Humaines, p. 333, (Paris, 1889); Dr. Thomas Achelis,Die Entwickelung der Modernen Ethnologie, s. 65, (Berlin, 1889). Agassiz was the first to announce (in 1850) that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the same zoölogical provinces as those inhabited by distinct species and genera of mammals. This fact is coming more and more to be the accepted axiom for the study of racial development. (Compare Darwin,Descent of Man, p. 169).

49This calculation includes in Asia the Arabian peninsula, Syria, the Iranic regions, most of Asia Minor and the Caucasus; but excludes Hindostan, the occupation of which by the Aryans is within the historic period. In Africa it embraces the tract from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from the Mediterranean to the Sudan, nearly all of which was held by the Hamitic peoples when we first learn about it. In Europe it includes the whole continent south of a line drawn from the mouth of the Volga, through St. Petersburg to the Atlantic.

50One of the leading European students of anatomical racial type is Dr. J. Kollmann, of Basle. He claims that there are four fundamental skull types in that continent:1. Narrow faced, brachycephalic.2. Narrow faced, dolichocephalic.3. Broad faced, brachycephalic.4. Broad faced, dolichocephalic.These forms he believes have been steadily perpetuated and have undergone no change, except by intermarrying; they bear no relation to intellectual ability, and they recur in nations of the same language, customs and history. “Ethnic unity in Europe rests not upon racial identity, but racial (anatomical) diversity.”Verhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 332.

50One of the leading European students of anatomical racial type is Dr. J. Kollmann, of Basle. He claims that there are four fundamental skull types in that continent:

1. Narrow faced, brachycephalic.2. Narrow faced, dolichocephalic.3. Broad faced, brachycephalic.4. Broad faced, dolichocephalic.

These forms he believes have been steadily perpetuated and have undergone no change, except by intermarrying; they bear no relation to intellectual ability, and they recur in nations of the same language, customs and history. “Ethnic unity in Europe rests not upon racial identity, but racial (anatomical) diversity.”Verhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 332.

51A more appropriate view was taken by Canon Isaac Taylor at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889. He defended the thesis that the human race originated in Europe and bifurcated into the Asian and African branches. (SeeNature, 1889, No. 40, p. 632.)

52For a recent summary of the evidence on this point consult Isaac Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 129, sq. (London, 1890.)

53See Freidrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. III., s. 224-5; Sayce,Science of Language, Vol. II., page 178. The latter uses the expression that between the old Egyptian, the Libyan, and the Semitic tongues “the grammatical agreement is most striking.”

54On the Guanches, consult the various works of Sabin Berthelot, Dr. Verneau, and later J. Harris Stone inProceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1888, p. 851. The last-mentioned dwells on the many similarities of their arts to those of the Egyptians.

55Barth is of opinion that the Berbers conquered the Sahara, not from blacks, but “from the sub-Libyan race, the Leucæthiopes of the ancients, with whom they intermarried” (Travels in Africa, Vol. I., 340). This is, I think, the correct opinion, and not that the Sahara was occupied by the negroes.

56Ritter,Erdkunde, Bd. I., s. 561.

57Walter B. Harris, inProceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889, p. 490.

58For numerous authorities, see Sabin Berthelot,Bulletin de la Société d’ Ethnologie, 1845, p. 121, sq., and hisAntiquités Canariennes(Paris, 1879).

59The early Greek geographer known as Scylax, also speaks of the Libyan men as blondes, and very handsome. For a recent and able discussion of this subject, consult F. Borsari,Geografica Ethnologica e Storica della Tripolitana, p. 23, sq. (Naples, 1888). The French writers Broca, Faidherbe, etc., have also written copiously on the Libyan blondes.

60TheTahennu. Rawlinson,History of Ancient Egypt, Vol. II. p. 292.

61As distinguished from the Arab, Pruner Bey described the Kabyle as “of higher stature, cerebral and facial cranium broader, forehead more vertical, eyebrows less arched, jaws more orthognathic.” My own studies in Algeria lead me to recognize the correctness of these distinctions. Dr. R. Collignon describes what he thinks is the most ancient Tunisian type as tall, dolichocephalic (73), mesorrhinic (75), narrow face, forehead and chin retreating. He says of the blonde element in Tunisia that it is “assez rare, mais un peu partout.”Bull. de la Soc. d’ Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, pp. 620, 621.

62Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1888, s. 115.

63Yet Barth mentions that in the western Sahara one of the most powerful of the Berber tribes was calledAurághen, the yellow, or the gold-colored.Travels in Africa, vol. i, pp. 230, 339.

64See Broca, “Sur les blondes, et les monuments megalithiques de l’Afrique du Nord,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1876; and Faidherbe,Collection Compléte d’ Inscriptions Numidiques, Introduction. (Paris, 1870.)

65In offering this new derivation of the much discussed name Berberi or Barbari, one must remember that it has always been the name of a powerful tribe in Morocco, the Brebres; that it was what the ancient Egyptians called them (Herodotus); and that it is to-day a pure Libyan word.Iberru, is from the verbal rootibra, they are free;ibarbar, they come forth (Newman,Libyan Vocabulary, pp. 40, 133). The plural in the Hamitic group was originally formed by repetition (F. Müller,Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. III., s. 240). Hence Berberi may mean either “those who came forth,”i. e., emigrants, or those who go where they list,i. e., freemen. This is also the meaning ofamóshagh, the generic name of the Touaregs (Barth,Travels in Africa, vol. v., page 555). Barth, a high authority, believes that the same wordberis the radical of the names Bernu, Berdoa, Berauni, etc. The legendary ancestors of the Moroccan Berbers (Brebres) was Ber, in which, says Barth, “we recognize the name Afer,” thefandbbeing interchangeable in these dialects. From “Afer” we have “Africa” (Travels, vol. i., p. 224). One of the principal gods of ancient Libya and of the Guanches was Abŏra, or Ibru. See my article “On Etruscan and Libyan Names” inProceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Feb., 1890. One of the Pindaric fragments recites a Libyan tradition to the effect that the first man, Iarbas, sprang from the sun-heated soil, and chose for food the sweet acorns of the tree (Lenormant,The Beginnings of History, p. 48). In “Iarbas” we can scarcely fail in recognizing the same rootbar, the change being by the familiar process of reversal.

66Early in this century, Bory de St. Vincent maintained the identity of the Iberians and Berbers (Essai Geologique, Paris, 1805). Humboldt argued that there was but one language in old Spain beside the Celtic, in spite of the direct assertion of Strabo to the contrary, and the well-known fact that many Celtiberic inscriptions cannot be read either in Celtic or Basque (Prüfung der Untersuchungen, etc., § 39).The Roman geographer, Rufus Festus Avienus, offers the important correction that the Iberi derived their name, not from the Ebro, as is usually stated, but from a stream close to Gibraltar on the Atlantic side.“At Iberus inde manat amnis et locosFœcundat undã: plurimi ex ipso feruntDictos Iberos, non ab illo flumineQuod inquietos Vasconas prælabitur.”—Ora Maritima.The two names show that it was anomen gentile, and that the tribe so known extended along the southern coast.It has been recently asserted that many north African place-names occur in Spain (Revista de Anthropologia, Madrid, 1876, quoted by Fligier).

The Roman geographer, Rufus Festus Avienus, offers the important correction that the Iberi derived their name, not from the Ebro, as is usually stated, but from a stream close to Gibraltar on the Atlantic side.

“At Iberus inde manat amnis et locosFœcundat undã: plurimi ex ipso feruntDictos Iberos, non ab illo flumineQuod inquietos Vasconas prælabitur.”—Ora Maritima.

The two names show that it was anomen gentile, and that the tribe so known extended along the southern coast.

It has been recently asserted that many north African place-names occur in Spain (Revista de Anthropologia, Madrid, 1876, quoted by Fligier).

67The Coptic word isNa-pa-ut, Bunsen,Egypt’s Place in History, Vol. III, p. 137.

68This war is recorded in the celebrated “inscription of Menephtah,” of the XIXth dynasty. SeeRecords of the Past, Vol. IV; Brugsch Bey,History of Egypt, Vol. II, p. 129, and the more recent studies of these inscriptions by Dr. Max Müller, in theProceedings of the Society for Biblical Archæology, Vol. VI.

69As further showing the ancient culture of the Libyans, I may note that they constructed stone dwellings before their conquest by the Romans. For extracts showing this, seeRevue des deux Mondes, Dec., 1865.

70The evidence to this effect I have marshalled in two papers read before the American Philosophical Society: “On the Ethnic Affinities of the Ancient Etruscans” (Proceedings of the Amer. Phil. Soc., Oct., 1889), and “A Comparison of Etruscan and Libyan Names” (Ibid., Feb., 1890).

71The most scholarly analysis of this curious alphabet, called thetifinaghortifinar, will be found in Prof. Halevy’sEssai d’ Epigraphie Libyque(Paris, 1875).

72See Duveyrier,Les Touaregs du Nord, p. 339; H. Bissuell,Les Touaregs de l’ Ouest, pp. 106, 115 (Alger., 1888), etc.

73Hooker and Ball,Tour in Morocco, p. 86.

74To Prof. A. H. Sayce is, I think, due the honor of showing that the pre-Semitic white race of Palestine was of the Libyan stock. SeeNature, 1888, p. 321. He had previously pointed out that the two forms of tenses of the Libyan verb “correspond most remarkably with Assyrian forms” (Introduction to the Science of Language, Vol. II., p. 180). Rawlinson, in hisStory of Phenicia(N. Y., 1889), adopts the view that the early Phenicians were Hamites. The epochal discovery of Halevy, now accepted by Delitzsch and other Assyriologists, that the “second” column of the cuneiform inscription is merely a Hamito-Semitic dialect in another character, finally destroys the “Turanian” hypothesis, and restores the ancient Assyrians to the Eurafrican race.

75Virchow, after close studies in Egypt, expressed himself very positively that the affinities of the old Egyptian stock were “with the Hamites, with the Berbers and Kabyles, the peoples who from the remotest times have inhabited the regions of the Atlas.” See his address in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888, p. 110.

76On the stone age in Egypt, see General Pitt-Rivers, inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1881, p. 387, sq.; and especially the exhaustive article by Dr. Virchow inVerhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1888, p. 345, sq. As early as 1881 Prof. Henry W. Haynes of Boston announced his discovery of palæolithic stone implements in Upper Egypt. (Mems. of the Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Vol. X., p. 357.) The latest contribution to the subject is by W. Reiss,Funde aus der Steinzeit Aegyptens(Berlin, 1890).

77M. G. de Lapouge goes quite as far. He writes (Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 308), “L’Egypte s’est civilisée pendant notre quaternaire, et son plus grand developpement a coincidé avec notre epoque néolithique.”

78“Jusqu’a cette heure,” writes A. L. Delattre, in theBulletin des Antiquités Africaines, 1885, p. 242, “les pieces archéologiques de notre collection de Carthage, qui remontent incontestablement à la période primitive de l’histoire de cette ville fameuse, ont toutes le cachet egyptien prononcé.”

79Dr. L. Faurot, inRevue d’Ethnographie, 1887, p. 57.

80See my essay on this subject,The Cradle of the Semites(Philadelphia, 1890); also the able paper of G. Bertin, “On the Origin of the Semites,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1882, p. 423, sq., and the speculations of R. G. Haliburton, inProceedings of the British Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 907. An excellent summary of the argument that the Semites came from Africa will be found in Gifford Palgrave’s article on Arabia in theEncyclopedia Britannica.

81The important Berber folk of the Mzabites in Southern Algiers are said strongly to resemble Semites, presenting “a reunion of the secondary characteristics of the Jews and Arabs.”Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 353.

82The late investigations of E. Glaser in Southern Arabia have brought many hundreds of these inscriptions to our knowledge.

83Doughty,Travels in Arabia Deserta, Vol. I., p. 102. About five per cent. of the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai are pure blondes. SeeRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 351.

84The statistics in Central Europe show that among the Jews there, about 15 per cent. are true blondes, 25 per cent. brunettes, and the remainder intermediate. The blondes are generally dolichocephalic, the brunettes brachycephalic or medium. See Dr. Fligier, “Zur Anthropologie der Semiten,” inMitthiel. der Wiener Anthrop. Gesell., Bd. IX., s. 155, sq.

85Compare Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 98, and Paul Broca,Sur l’Origine et la Repartition de la Langue Basque, Paris (1875). Broca recognized the autochthony of the Basque in Spain, and considered their language the oldest in Europe.

86Called by the French craniologiststête de lièvre. De Quatrefages identified certain skulls from kitchen-middens in Portugal as of this form, indicating that the Euskaric peoples once extended that far west.Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, p. 478.

87See on this point the detailed comparisons in Heinrich Winkler’sUral-altaische Völker und Sprachen, ss. 155-167, and elsewhere. The attempted identifications of Basques and Berbers by Dr. Tubino (Los Aborigines Ibericos, Madrid, 1876) is therefore a failure.

88I should prefer the term “Celtindic” to either of the others. “Aryan,” or Aryac, suggested by Prof. Max Müller from a Sanscrit root, signifies “noble,” “superior.” It is open to several objections, but I have adopted it on account of its popularity.

89The European bronze age, for instance, was not introduced by the Indo-Aryac peoples, as their early art-forms in bronze are quite distinct, and their alloy different, the Asian bronze being a zinc, the European a tin alloy. See on this R. Virchow in theCorrespondenz-Blatt der deutchen Gesell. für Anthropologie, 1889, s. 94.

90See d’Halloy’s articles in theBulletins de l’Academie Royale de Belgique, beginning with Vol. VI (1839); especially in 1848 his “Observations sur la Distribution ancienne des peuples de la race blanche.” Dr. Latham first stated this view in an Appendix, dated 1859, to an article on “The original extent of the Slavonic area.” See hisOpuscula, pp. 127-28 (London, 1860). I observe that Dr. John Beddoe, in his last address before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain this year, 1890, repeats the statement: “The first anthropologist of note who took up the notion of the European origin of the Aryans was Dr. Robert Latham” (Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1890, p. 491). On the contrary, d’Halloy, in the “Observations” above quoted (p. 9), urges that the “Indo-Germanic” languages point to a kinship of those who speak them, and that they always have been in Europe, and did not come from Asia.

91A. De Candolle,Revue d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 265, sq. This is ingeniously explained on the mechanical theory of mixing colors by d’Halloy.Obs. sur la Distrib. de la Race Blanche, p. 11. (Bruxelles, 1848.) Compare also R. Virchow,Die Verbreitung des blonden und des brunetten Typus in Mitteleuropa, who attributes the increase of brunette’s to a reversion to “Celtic or pre-Celtic ancestry.”

92This opinion has also been defended by Fligier,Zur praehistorischen Ethnologie Italiens, p. 55.

93Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 259.

94See his remarkable essay, published in 1821, entitledPrüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittlest der Vaskischen Sprache, § 47.

95In his latest work, Dr. Abel avers that the old Egyptian and Indo-European stocks have as many radicals in common as the idioms of the latter have among themselves.Ægyptisch-Europaeische Sprachverwandtschaft, s. 58 (Leipzig, 1890).

96See Karl Brugman,Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic Languages, Vol. I., pp. 13, 14; Wharton,Etyma Latina, Introduction.

97See Dr. Fligier,Zur praehistorischen Ethnologie Italiens(Wien 1877). There is a markedly brachycephalic type among the Albanians, quite dissimilar from the Greek. I incline to believe it is Celtic. See Dr. Raphael Zampa, “Anthropologie Illyrienne,” in theRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 625, sq.

98See Max Duncker,History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 11.

99Ibid., pp. 13, 142.

100Taylor,Origin of the Aryans, p. 98.

101The Phrygian was about as closely related to the Greek as Gothic to middle High German. See Curtius,History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 43, who acknowledges that the testimony of antiquity is in favor of the easterly migration of the Hellenic peoples, but denies the fact because it is in conflict with his Asiatic hypothesis.

102The Cypriote Greeks used a remarkable syllabic alphabet of great antiquity. R. H. Lang,Cyprus, pp. 8, 12 (London, 1878).

103On this important subject see Max Duncker,History of Greece, Vol. I, Chap. IV, “The Phenicians in Hellas;” and H. Schliemann,Tiryns, pp. 28, 57, etc.

104Hovelacque et Hervé,Precis d’Anthropologie, p. 573.

105This is the opinion of Penka, Schrader, Taylor, etc.

106“The Lithuanian language has more antique features by far than any other now spoken dialect of the whole great (Aryac) family.” W. D. Whitney,Oriental and Linguistic Studies, Vol. II, p. 228.

107In North Germany the present percentage of blondes is 42; in the German empire, 32; in Austria, 20; in Switzerland, 11. (Virchow,Die Verbreitung des blonden und des brunetten Typus in Mitteleuropa.)

108On the extreme diversity of skull-forms among the modern Russians seeRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1889, p. 99. The race of the “Kurgans,” or ancient tombs, which are supposed to date back to the ninth or tenth century, had usually long skulls; but about 20 per cent. are short. Hervé is quite right in his statement, “Il n’y a pas un type général slave, il n’y a même pas un type slave du nord et un type slave du sud.”Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 564.

109Cf. Gesa Kuun, “L’ Origine des Nationalités de la Transylvanie,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1888, pp. 232, sqq.

110Omalius d’Halloy has called attention to the statement of Potocki,Voyages, p. 167, that the Ossetes, by their own traditions, came from southeastern Russia, on the river Don. They are generally blondes of the brachycephalic Slavonic type.

111Cf. Louis Rousselet,Les Afghans, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1888, p, 412.

112Sanscrit civilization extended throughout most of Farther India and Malasia, and at one time had one of its chief seats in Cambodia, where the ruins of magnificent palaces decorated with subjects from the Ramayana attest its presence. See Abel Bergaigne, “Sur l’Histoire Ancienne du Cambodge,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 477, sq.

113A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands, p. 2. (4to, Gotha, 1878.)

114“Everything goes to prove,” writes de Quatrefages, “that the Caucasus was not a center ofemigration, but ofimmigrationby various peoples at a comparatively late date.” (Histoire Generale des Races Humaines, p. 475.) The researches of Rudolph Virchow result in showing that these mountains were peopled at about the beginning of the age of bronze.

115This is the result of the observations of Ernest Chantre, who spent years in personal investigations throughout the Caucasus. (Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase, quoted inRevue d’ Anthropologie,1888, p. 480.) Virchow reached the same conclusion from his osteologic studies (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, 1887, p. 97.) It is high time therefore to stop talking about the “Caucasian” race.

116For a full discussion of this subject consult de Quatrefages,Les Pygmées des anciens et de la science moderne, Paris, 1886.

117See the very detailed observations of Emin Bey in theZeitschrift fur Ethnologié, 1886, s. 145. The hairy skin is also mentioned by Du Chaillu.

118Dr. K. Schweinfurth,The Heart of Africa, vol. i., p. 139; and Fritsch,Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1887, s 195.

119Leclerc, “Les Pygmées à Madagascar,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1887, p. 323.

120Theodore Hahn, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, P. 272.

121See M. Ploix, “Les Hottentots et leur Religion,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, p. 271, sq.

122Dr. L. Tautain, “Sur l’ Ethnographie du Sénégal,” inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 61, sq.

123See Th. Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. II, ss. 476-8.

124See Dr. Frederich Müller,Die Æquatoriale Sprach-Familie in Central Afrika, Wien, 1889.

125The wordbantuin that language means “people” or “men.” It is preferable to “Caffres,” which is sometimes applied to the group, and which is an Arabic term meaning “infidels.”

126These traditions are briefly presented by de Quatrefages,Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, pp. 371, sqq.

127Grandel,Ethnography, p. 335.

128These are found in Bechuana land at Zimbabye. See John Mackenzie,Austral Africa, Vol. I., p. 35 (London, 1887.)

129Except the Bushman and Hottentots and Negrillos, all the African tribes seem to have long known the working of iron. See Dr. F. Delisle, “Sur la Fabrication du fer dans l’ Afrique Equatoriale,” in theRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1884, p. 465.

130On the geographical domain of the Mandingoes, see a careful note by Dr. Toutain in theRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1886, p. 515.

131Cf. A. R. Wallace,Geographical Distribution of Animals.

132This is Mantegazza’s opinion,Archivio per l’Antropologia, 1888, p. 121, sq.

133D’Escayrac de Lauture,Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, p. 64 (Paris, 1877).

134D’Escayrac de Lauture,Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, pp. 18-20 (Paris, 1877).

135A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands, ss. 20-24.

136Nicholas Seeland, “Les Kirghis,” inRevue d’Anthropologie, 1886, p. 27.

137The best recent authority is Dr. Heinrich Winkler,Uralaltaische Völker und Sprachen. (Berlin, 1884.)

138Note on the Lapps of Finmark, p. 8. (Paris, 1886.)

139A. H. Keane,Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XV., p. 218.

140N. A. E. de Nordenskjold, inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1884, p. 402; also A. F. Rittich,Die Ethnographie Russlands. 12 (Gotha, 1878).

141I have followed in this obscure subject W. H. Dall, “On the so-called Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia” in theAmerican Naturalist, 1881, p. 857. Rittich says, erroneously, that the Namollos are not related to the Chukchis. (Die Ethnographie Russland,s. 15.) The relationship of the Chukchi, Korak and Kamschatkan is demonstrated by Heinrich Winkler,Uralaltäische Völker und Sprachen, s. 120.

142J. Deniker,Les Ghiliaks d’après les derniers Renseignements, pp. 5, 17. (Paris, 1884.)

143The date of the foundation of the Japanese ecclesiastical empire is put at 660B.C.D’Escayrac de Lauture,La Chine et les Chinois, Vol. I, p. 17.

144For details, see Hovelacque et Hervé,Precis d’ Anthropologie, p. 468-470.

145An admirable analysis of the physical traits of the Japanese will be found in theJournal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. VI., written by Benjamin Smith Lyman, long a resident among them.

146This subject has been presented with great amplitude of illustration by the late Moritz Wagner. SeeDie Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung, Basel, 1889.

147Dr. Finsch, for instance, mentions that on the little island of Tanna, in Melanesia, nearly every village has a dialect unintelligible to its neighbors.Anthrop. Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 38. (Berlin, 1884.)

148This lost continent is sometimes called Gondwana land, from the recurrence of the Gondwana formation in Hindostan, Madagascar, and the east coast of Africa. See Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. ii.

149The wordaëtais Malayan, and means “black.” There is some doubt about the Semangs, as some of them are fair. SeeJournal of the Anthropological Institute,1886, p. 429, and compare F. de Castelnau in theRevue de philologie et d’ ethnographie, 1876, p. 174, sq.

150The Susians in the lower valley of the Euphrates show in color and hair an infusion of Negro blood, but this is attributable to the introduction of slaves into that region from Africa. (Cf.Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1888, p. 79.)

151For an excellent study of the Andaman islanders, see E. H. Man, inJournal of Anthropological Institute, Vol. XII., etc. F. Blumentritt describes the Negritos of the Philippines with head and features thoroughly Negro like. (Ethnographie der Philippinen, s. 5, Gotha, 1882.)

152Dr. J. Montano, inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 691; F. Blumentritt,Ethnographie der Philippinen, s. 7. (Gotha, 1882.) The description applies principally to the Negritos of these islands, where they number about 10,000 persons.

153Flower, “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the Andaman Islands,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1880, p. 132. The same position is taken by James Dallas, in theProceedings of the British Naturalists’ Society, 1884. He argues that the Negritos, Papuas and African Negroes belong to one family, the “Melanochroic,” which in view of the continuity and isolation of the region it occupies must originally have been a unit.

154See A. B. Meyer, inMittheilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen Gesellschaft,1874; and A. R. Wallace, Australasia, pp. 452-456. The great diversity in color, hair, etc., is commented on by Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, p. 34. The difference is sometimes by villages, some being quite fair and called “white Papuas,” though of pure blood ostensibly.

155See Rev. L. Ella, “A Comparison of the Malayan and Papuan Races of Polynesia,” inProceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. I. (1888), p. 484, sq. The author writes from 26 years’ intercourse with the various islanders. He claims that the Papuas “have distinctly African resemblances, habits, customs, languages, and religions.”

156These singular facts are fully supported by the studies of Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 34, sq.

157See Fr. Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 160.

158Horatio Hale,Ethnog. and Philol. of the U. S. Exploring Exped., p. 44.

159In theVerhand. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 162.

160See Friedrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. I., Ab. II., s. 30; Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 160.

161M. O. Beauregard has compared 120 common words and numerals in dialects from Madagascar to Easter Island, and proves that all are affined to the pure Malay, though with many verbal admixtures from other sources.Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie, 1886, pp. 520-527.

162“On ne peut guère mettre en doute que les vrais Malais appartiennent au groupe des races à petite taille et à tête plus ou moins ronde de l’Asie.” Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 470.

163See Friedrich Müller,Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 1-3.

164Compare Fr. Ratzel,Völkerkunde, Bd. II., s. 371. Dr. Hamy and Mr. Keane have questioned the relationship of the Battaks.

165Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 1. (Berlin, 1884.)

166A. Thompson, “On the Osteology of the Veddahs,” inJournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1889. “Veddah” in Sanscrit means “hunter.”

167On the inhabitants of Boru, see G. W. Earl,Native races of the Indian Archipelago, p. 185.

168Other Hypotheses about the Polynesians are that they are an autochthonous race developed in New Zealand (Lesson et Martinet,Les Polynésiens, Paris, 1884); that they came from America; that they are of Aryac descent (Fornander).The migrations of the Polynesians have been closely studied by Horatio Hale,Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, pp. 116-196 (1847). Many later writers have pursued the subject.

The migrations of the Polynesians have been closely studied by Horatio Hale,Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, pp. 116-196 (1847). Many later writers have pursued the subject.

169The sacred legends and rites of the Polynesians have been collected by Bastian,Inselgruppen in Oceanien(Berlin, 1883), and other writers.

170Dr. O. Finsch,Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 19.

171De Quatrefages found the Australian sub-type of skull reappearing among the Dravidians, and he goes so far as to add, “The affinity of the Australian and Dravidian languages is now universally admitted.”Hist. Gen. des Races Humaines, p. 333. He quotes the authority of Maury; but Fr. Müller thinks the analogies “too weak” to be convincing. (Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft.Bd. II., s. 95-98.)

172Dr. Friedrich Ratzel acknowledges the probable inroads of Malays in southern India, but condemns classing the Dravidas with the Australians.Völkerkunde, Bd. III., s. 411 (Leipzig, 1888).

173Wake, “The Papuans and Polynesians,” inJour. of the Anthrop. Institute, Nov., 1882.

174This is the positive statement of Geo. W. Earl, who had seen Tasmanians. (Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, p. 188. London, 1853.) It is contradicted by Dr. Hamy, in theCrania Ethnica, for no other reason, apparently, than that it does not fit his theories.

175“The cast of the face is between the African and Malay types.” H. Hale,Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, p. 107. Mr. Hale describes their hair as “long, fine and wavy, like that of Europeans,” the color usually a dark brown.

176Edwin N. Curr,The Australian Race, Vol. III., p. 675 (London, 1887).

177Elisée Reclus, “Contributions à la Sociologie des Australiens,” inRevue d’ Anthropologie, 1887.

178For abundant authorities see A. Bastian,Inselgruppen in Oceanien, ss. 121, 122 (Berlin, 1883).

179Cf. A. T. Packard, “Notes on the Labrador Eskimos,” inAmerican Naturalist, 1885, p. 473.

180E. Petitot,Monographie des Déné Dindjié, p. 24 (Paris, 1876).

181See F. Michel,Dix huit ans chez les Sauvages(Paris, 1866), and Petitot, ubi supra.

182See an article on “The Probable Nationality of the Mound Builders,” in myEssays of an Americanist, p. 67 (Philadelphia, 1890).

183Dr. Ten Kate, inRevue d’ Ethnographie, 1885, p. 122.

184Life Among the Pi-Utes, by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (Boston, 1883).

185Dr. A. Krause,Die Tlinkit Indianer(Jena, 1885).

186The tribes of British Columbia have been especially studied by Dr. Franz Boas, who has published extensively upon them.

187See D. G. Brinton,American Hero Myths, Chap. III (Philadelphia, 1882).

188The Tarascos have been studied with much care by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Michoacan, who has published a number of articles on their antiquities and languages.

189S. Habel,The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa(Washington, 1878). Bastian has also written a good account of them (Berlin, 1882).

190D. G. Brinton, “On the Alaguilac Language of Guatemala,” inProceedings of the American Philosoph. Soc., 1887.

191D. G. Brinton,The Güegüence, a comedy ballet in the Dialect of Nicaragua. Introduction, p. viii. (Philadelphia, 1883).

192C. H. Berendt,Bull. of the Amer. Geog. Society, 1876, p. 11.

193Karl von der Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, s. 308.

194On this complex question compareVerhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1886, s. 703; 1887, s. 532, and elsewhere; Karl von den Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, s. 295, and the work of Von Martius,Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s zumal Brasiliens, Vol. I. (Leipzig, 1867).

195The most careful analysis of the Peruvian government is given by Dr. Gustav Brühl,Die Culturvölker Alt-America’s, pp. 369, sq. (Cincinnati, 1887).

196Dr. J. Orgeas,La Pathologie des Races Humaines, p. 481 (Paris, 1886).

197Authorities in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’Anthropologie, 214, sq.

198This is the opinion advocated by de Quatrefages. His arguments will be found in the seventh chapter of hisHistoire Générale des Races Humaines(Paris, 1889).

199Dr. J. Orgeas,La Pathologie des Races Humaines, p. 481.

200Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 171 (New York, 1883).

201Dally, quoted in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 218.

202See the question discussed by Waitz,Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Bd. I, s. 188.

203Quoted in Darwin,The Descent of Man, p. 182.

204S. N. Clark,Circular of the Bureau of Education, Washington, 1877; Garrick Mallery, inProceedings of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1877, p. 340.

205This is the statement of Dr. F. Nansen, the recent explorer of Greenland, and many others.

206F. Blumentritt,Die Ethnographie der Phillipinen, s. 8 (Gotha, 1882).

207Fr. Ratzel,Völkerkunde, Bd. I, s. 628, who quotes the authority of Du Chaillu.

208George Gerland,Anthropologische Beiträge, Bd. I., s. 5 (Halle, 1875).

209Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1887, s. 88.

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