FOOTNOTES

FOOTNOTES[1]“Religion,” observes Professor Toy, “must be treated as a product of human thought, as a branch of Sociology, subject to all the laws that control general human progress.”—Judaism and Christianity, p. 1.[2]Rev. John M. Neale,History of the Holy Eastern Church, vol. i., p. 37.[3]Granger,The Worship of the Romans, p. vii.[4]A. H. Post,Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, Bd. i., s. 4.[5]The Science of Fairy Tales, p. 2.[6]Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xi., s. 124.[7]J. J. Honegger,Allgemeine Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 332. “Similar conceptions,” observes Professor Bastian, “repeat themselves, under fixed laws, in localities wide apart, in ages far remote.”—Grundzüge der Ethnologie, p. 73.[8]E. M. Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 50.[9]W. P. Clark, U. S. A.,Indian Sign Language, p. 241.[10]This subject is fully discussed by Flügel,Zeit. für. Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xi.; by Prof. James Sully in hisStudies of Childhood; and by Dr. Friedmann,Centralblatt für Anthropologie, Bd. i. The last mentioned argues that the mind of the savage has more points of resemblance to the insane than to the child mind. The higher emotional susceptibility of savages can be illustrated by abundant examples.[11]Ethnography and Philology of the United States Exploring Expedition, p. 108.[12]The case was not exceptional. Among several tribes it was an established custom for a mother to kill and eat her first child, as it was believed to strengthen her for later births. See examples inZeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xiv., pp. 460,sq.[13]Palmer inJour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xiii., pp. 294, 399.[14]Professor Sayce believes that the Sumerian of ancient Babylonia was genderless; and that the local gods were first endowed with sex on being adopted by the Semites.—Hibbert Lectures, p. 176.[15]Cuoq,Lexique Algonquine, p. 21, note.[16]The Golden Bough, Preface.[17]Ed. Clodd,Myths and Dreams, p. 168.[18]Besides the general works on Egyptian religion, I may note R. Pietschmann, “Aegypt. Fetischdienst und Götterglaube,” inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, Bd. x., s. 153,sq.He points out that there was no unity in the ancient cults of Egypt, as the gods were those of the nomes only. The worship of Osiris did not prevail generally till after the sixth dynasty (p. 165).[19]Some have explained superstition as “degenerate religion”; others as “religious error”; others (Pfleiderer) as “a pathological condition of normal belief”; but all such definitions depend on the view-point. As Roskoff remarks: “The man who is plunged in superstition is sure to hold it for the only true faith, and is contented with it so long as he is not troubled with doubts.”—Das Religionswesen der Naturvölker, p. 17.[20]See T. Rhys Davids,Indian Buddhism, p. 29 (Hibbert Lectures), and in the first volume of the present series of lectures.[21]Death was to the Roman thesomnum eternale. Prof. Sayce remarks of the ancient Chaldeans that they had no definite belief in an after life.—Hibbert Lectures, p. 358.[22]The question has been carefully examined by G. Roskoff in his workDas Religionswesen der Rohesten Naturvölker(Leipzig, 1880). He conclusively refutes the assertions that tribes have been encountered without religion.[23]Calloway,Religious System of the Amazulus, p. 113.[24]Rev. W. Y. Turner inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. vii., p. 492.[25]Medicine Men of the Apache, pp. 499, 500.[26]The question is carefully discussed by Hoernes,Urgeschichte des Menschen, p. 93,sq., who disputes Mortillet’s opinion. The latter is given in hisPréhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 603,sq.[27]The Descent of Man, p. 95.[28]Quoted inL’Anthropologie, vol. viii., p. 334.[29]Granger,Religion of the Romans, p. 21; Thiele,Hist. of the Egyptian Religion, Introd.[30]Dr. Schwaner, in H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak, vol. ii., App. p. clxii.[31]H. Grimme,Mohammed, p. 38.[32]In his Preface toThe Revolt of Islam.[33]O. Peschel,Völkerkunde, s. 255; F. Ratzel,Ethnographie, Bd. i;—Schurtz,Catechismus der Völkerkunde, s. 88.[34]The eminent anthropologist Broca denied thatreligiosityis a distinctive trait of humanity. See further in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’Anthropologie, pp. 634-636.[35]Myth, Ritual, and Religion, vol. i., chap. xi.[36]Hibbert Lectures, p. 328. Darwin has a parallel passage,Descent of Man, p. 95.[37]“Everything, animate or inanimate, which has an independent being, or can be individualised, possesses a spirit, or, more properly, a shade (idahi, a shadow, or reflection).” Washington Matthews,Ethnog. of the Hidatsa, p. 48. This expresses the generalWeltanschauungof the savage mind. Let it be remembered that it is also characteristic of the poetic, or personifying representation of nature, and thus belongs to the highest artistic expressions of the human mind as well as to its feeblest utterances.[38]This was the universal opinion of classical antiquity. See Payne Knight,Ancient Art, p. 45. It was also the orthodox theory of the early Church concerning the redeemed soul. It “will know all things as God doth. Whatsoever is in Heaven and whatsoever is in earth, everything will he see with that veritable knowledge which nothing escapeth.”—Select Works of St. Ephrem the Syrian, translated by Rev. J. B. Morris, p. 353.[39]Ridley, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. ii., p. 269.[40]Mr. A. E. Gough gives reasons for the opinion that theyogin, who practises theyoga, is a lineal follower of the ancient local shaman.—Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 221.[41]This curious recent development of most ancient experience is described by Dr. M. Bucke in the work,In Re Walt Whitman.[42]The phenomena of “demoniac possession” are so remarkable, and so frequent in lower conditions of culture that they have been defended as the actual influence of evil spirits by intelligent modern observers (see the work of Rev. Dr. Nevins,Demoniac Possession in China, etc.). Bishop Calloway says most of the negro converts in Natal have such attacks after embracing Christianity (Jour. Anthrop. Society, vol. i., p. 171). Brough Smith describes such attacks among the Australians. Strong men are suddenly seized with violent convulsions. They dance wildly, scream at the top of their voices, foam at the mouth, and continue until utterly exhausted. They are homicidal when in this condition, and their companions fear to approach them (The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 466).[43]The most complete study of this subject in connection with the development of religions is the work of Dr. Otto Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Völkerpsychologie(Leipzig, 1894).[44]Bishop Calloway, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, i., p. 177; and in hisReligious System of the Amazulu, p. 232. The Bushmen explain it as “a kind of beating of the flesh,” which tells them the future, and where lost things may be found. They add: “Those who are stupid do not understand this teaching.”—Bleek,Bushman Folk-lore, p. 17.[45]A. E. Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 243.[46]Klemm,Allgemeine Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 337; A. M. Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 48.[47]Curr notes this among the Australians,ubi supra, vol. i., p. 48; and it is general among American Indians.[48]W. W. Gill,Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35.[49]Middendorf,Keshua Wörterbuch, s. v.[50]Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1896. Sect. H.[51]On the meaning ofhuacasee von Tschudi,Beiträge zur Kennt. des alten Peru, p. 156; Bertonio,Vocab. de la Lengua Aymara, s. v.[52]The probable identity of Heb.Iahwith Chald.Iahis acknowledged by Pinches, Sayce, and other eminent Assyriologists (see an article by the former, in theProc.of the Victorian Institute for 1895). That the Greek Iachus is from the Chaldeo-Syrian (as his myth claims, referring to him as “The Assyrian stranger,” etc., L. DyerThe Gods in Greece, p. 165) was maintained by Herodotus, Macrobius, and Plutarch, among the ancients, and by various modern authors. It can be shown, however, thatYahas a name of God was derived from a sacred interjection or cry of the same phonetic value, which recurs repeatedly in the cults of America, Polynesia, and Australia. This is also true ofhuaorwa, the radical of the English “God.” They are both what have been called “universal” radicals.[53]Codrington inJour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. x., p. 279; Fornander,The Polynesian Race, vol. iii., pp. 225-7. In some dialectsmanahas the special meanings, omen; the thunder; the breath; the belly (i.e., the interior), etc. Hale gives the definition “power” as common to all dialects (Polynesian Lexicon, s. v.). Fornander notes the similarity to Sanscrit,mana,manu, mind, thought.[54]I have dwelt on the absence of monotheism among the American tribes inMyths of the New World, p. 75. Dr. Washington Matthews, a most competent, authority, expresses the universally correct view, when, speaking of Mahopa, the divine conception of the Hidatsa Indians, he says: “It refers to an influence or power above all things, but not attaching to it any ideas of personality.”—Ethnography of the Hidatsa Indians, p. 48.[55]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 338; L. M. Turner,The Hudson Bay Eskimos, p. 272; von den Steinen,Die Naturvölker Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 340. Among the Australians, both men and women become “doctors” or shamans by dreaming.—Curr,The Australian Race, vol., ii., p. 74.[56]These are called “hypnogogic hallucinations.” They have been studied by Maury,Annales Medico-psychologiques, tome xi., p. 252,sq.[57]This point is discussed by Professor Granger,Worship of the Romans, pp. 28,sq.[58]Bishop Calloway describes the regimen adopted to become inspired among the Zulus, inJour. Anthrop. Soc., vol. i., p. 175. Among the Dyaks of Borneo the ceremony is callednampok, and its conditions are: 1. To be alone; 2. To pass the night on a mountain top; 3. To offer a sacrifice and call for the god. Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., p. 185.[59]I have treated this question at some length in myMyths of the New World, p. 314, andNagualism, p. 7,sq.[60]I have given a translation of it inEssays of an Americanist, p. 293.[61]A. E. Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 237. The Mexican adjurations referred to are given by Sahagun,Historia de Nueva España, lib. x., cap. 29.[62]W. W. Gill,Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, pp. 28, 34. The concrete meaning of both words is pith, kernel, core, centre, etc.[63]Hale,Ethnography of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, p. 55; Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 315; after Stoll. The Algonkian myth relates that the hero-god Nanabojou could converse with the spirits of all things, with trees, flowers, butterflies, the thunder, etc. (Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 113).[64]Elysée Reclus,Le Primitif d’Australie, p. 232.[65]The Greeks had but vague notions of an after life, and Professor Schrader remarks: “The cult of the dead has no place in the Homeric world.”Prehist. Antiqs. of the Aryan Peoples, p. 424. The “indigetes dii” of the Romans were rather heroes than divinities, though Arnobius,Adv. Gentes, lib. i., cap. 64, asserts that they were worshipped.[66]The most satisfactory recent study on the worship of ancestors and of the dead, is that by Dr. S. R. Steinmetz in hisEthnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, Bd. i., ss. 141-287 (Leiden, 1894).[67]Clark,Indian Sign Language, pp. 121, 165, 199, 207, etc.; Howitt inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. xiii., p. 186. If one wakes a sleeper suddenly, he may die, as his vagrant soul may not get back in time. Von den Steinen,Naturvölker Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 510. In all these primitive views the real soul is regarded as merely a tenant of the body (not a function or the result of functions), as it is to-day in the popular religions of civilised lands.[68]The fear of ghosts in civilised countries is the survival of a wide-spread, ancient belief in the malevolence of souls. I have found no instance of this more striking than among the Finns. They believed that the souls of the dead lie in wait for the living, in order to kill and eat them, especially their hearts and lungs, so that the slain could not live again. The ghosts did not spare their nearest relatives, and the story is told of an old man, who warned his beloved young wife not to follow his corpse to the grave, or his ghost would eat her. She disobeyed, and saved herself only by pronouncing the name of God.Cong. Internat. d’Archéologie de Moscou, Tom. ii., p. 316. In about one third of known savage tribes, the ghosts are considered kind and friendly to the survivors. See Steinmetz’s analysis in hisEntwicklung der Strafe, Bd. i., s. 142,sq.[69]Friedrich Freihold,Die Lebensgeschichte der Menschheit, Bd. i., s. 35.[70]Baiame is from the verb bhai.Jour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. viii., p. 242. The “Nurali” of the Murray River tribes is also an embodiment of light. B. B. Smyth,Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 423.[71]Gill,Myths and Songs, p. 13; Fornander,The Polynesian Race, vol. iii., p. 153.[72]Gill,ubi supra, pp. 3, 17, 44.[73]E. W. Man, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. xii., p. 166.[74]Th. Hahn,Tsuni ǁGoam, pp. 124, 126.[75]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 186;Jour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. x., p. 285.[76]Myths of the New World, pp. 97, 165, etc.[77]Fornander,Polynesian Race, vol. i., p. 78; Gill,Myths and Songs, p. 18.[78]Musters,Among the Patagonians, ch. v.; Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. ii., App., p. clxx.; Hahn,Tsuni ǁGoam, p. 37.[79]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 189.[80]Castren observes: “Es hat innerhalb der weitgestreckten Gränzen Asiens kaum ein einziges Volk gegeben, welches nicht den Himmel verehrt hätte.”—Finnische Mythologie, p. 14. He might as well have said, “the habitable globe” instead of Asia only.[81]Matthew, v., 34.[82]Hopkins,Religions of India, pp. 62,seq.[83]Gill,ubi supra, pp. 10-14; Sir George Grey,Polynesian Mythology, ch. i.[84]B. Brough Smith,Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 457.[85]Notably by Prof. F. L. W. Schwartz in his numerous works, and in his contributions to theZeitschrift für Ethnologie, etc.[86]The Hebrew name Jahve (Jehovah) is derived by some from the verb “to thunder.” In the Vedas, Parjanja, the Thunderer, is a conspicuous figure. Mumpal, the Thunder, say the Australians, created all things. (Reise der Fregatte Novara, Anthrop. Theil, s. ix.) Among the Bechuanas, “When it thunders, every one trembles, and each asks the other, ‘Is there anyone among us who has devoured the wealth of others?’” (Calloway,Relig. System of the Amazulu, p. 117). Any number of other examples could be added.[87]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 64; Honegger,Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 332.[88]Castren,Finnische Mythologie, p. 17.[89]Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 17.[90]I refer especially to the results of the physical investigations of Helmholtz, and to their logical application to mental science, by George J. Romanes, in hisMind and Motion; to the position of Prof. Paulsen in hisIntroduction to Philosophy; and to such lines of thought as are presented in Professor Dolbear’sMatter, Ether, and Motion.[91]Related in Gill’sMyths and Songs of the South Pacific. M. van Ende, in hisHistoire Naturelle de la Croyance, p. 83, sq., has some suggestive remarks on sound as regarded by primitive nations as a mark of life. Hence, their myths of brooks, trees, etc., as conscious beings.[92]A Lenormant,Chaldean Magic, p. 96.[93]E. F. Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 60. “Nothing more colors Hindu life,” writes Mr. Walhouse, “than the belief in the efficacy ofmantras—forms of prayer or powerful words, by which all the relations of life may be influenced, and even the gods may be bound.”—Jour. Anthrop, Inst., vol. xiv., p. 189.[94]Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 48.[95]Report of Com. of N. South Wales to the Columbian Exposition, p. 7.[96]Sayce,Hibbert Lectures, p. 309.[97]Lenormant,Chaldean Magic, p. 63.[98]Brinton,Myths of the New World, p. 318.[99]The appropriate rite thus to destroy an enemy is described by Curr,The Australian Race, vol. ii., p. 610.[100]Popol Vuh, le Livre Sacré des Quiches, p. 10.[101]Polynesian Mythology, p. 284.[102]Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 413.[103]The expression in the Algonkin tongue for a person of the same name isnind owiawina, “He is another myself” (Cuoq,Lexique Algonquine, p. 113).[104]Curr,ubi supra, p. 246.[105]Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., p. 288.[106]H. Hale,Ethnography of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, p. 288.[107]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., p. 329.[108]This subject has been discussed by Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, pp. 165-184, and other writers. On the “name soul” among the American Indians I have collected material inMyths of the New World, p. 277,sq.Most American and Australian tribes would not name the dead. On the other hand, in the robust religion of the ancient Germans, the names of the loved departed and of great chiefs were shouted out at the banquets, and a horn drained to theirminni, affectionate memory. J. Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, vol. i., p. 59.[109]Chaldean Magic, p. 104.[110]The original is in the Turin papyrus.[111]Granger,Worship of the Romans, p. 277.[112]Howitt, inJour. Anthrop. Inst., xiii., p. 192.[113]James Adair,Hist. of the North Am. Indians, p. 54.[114]Prof. Sayce inHibbert Lectures, p. 305.[115]Sahagun,Historia de Nueva España, lib. i.,passim;Popol Vuh, cap. i.; Stoll,Ethnographie der Rep. Guatemala, p. 118.[116]Gill,Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, p. 6.[117]Comp. W. Robertson Smith,Religion of the Semites, p. 41.[118]Select Works of St. Ephrem, p. 122. (Trans. by the Rev. J. B. Morris.) The name of Jesus was regarded by the early church as magical in itself. Arnobius says of him, “whose Name, when heard, puts to flight evil spirits, imposes silence on soothsayers, prevents men from consulting the augurs, and frustrates the efforts of magicians.”—Adversus Gentes, lib. i., cap. 46.[119]See Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 14,seq.[120]Thepĕtaraof the Borneans is at times used as a personal name of the chief divine being, at others in the vague sense of “duty” or “supernatural.” Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., 179. Analogous instances have already been mentioned.[121]Indian Sign Language, p. 309.[122]Sir George Grey,Polynesian Mythology, p. 164.[123]Hyades et Deniker,Mission Scientifique au Cap Horn, p. 376. Earlier voyagers write: “They certainly have ideas of a spiritual existence.”—Narrative of the Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. ii., p. 179.[124]Ancient Nahuatl Poetry(Philadelphia, 1890);Rig Veda Americanus(Philadelphia, 1890).[125]Dr. W. Matthews,The Mountain Chant of the Navahoes, p. 465.[126]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 309.[127]Sahagun,Hist. de Nueva España, lib. vi. Other examples are given by this writer.[128]Encyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses, s. v. Prière.

[1]“Religion,” observes Professor Toy, “must be treated as a product of human thought, as a branch of Sociology, subject to all the laws that control general human progress.”—Judaism and Christianity, p. 1.

[2]Rev. John M. Neale,History of the Holy Eastern Church, vol. i., p. 37.

[3]Granger,The Worship of the Romans, p. vii.

[4]A. H. Post,Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, Bd. i., s. 4.

[5]The Science of Fairy Tales, p. 2.

[6]Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xi., s. 124.

[7]J. J. Honegger,Allgemeine Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 332. “Similar conceptions,” observes Professor Bastian, “repeat themselves, under fixed laws, in localities wide apart, in ages far remote.”—Grundzüge der Ethnologie, p. 73.

[8]E. M. Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 50.

[9]W. P. Clark, U. S. A.,Indian Sign Language, p. 241.

[10]This subject is fully discussed by Flügel,Zeit. für. Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xi.; by Prof. James Sully in hisStudies of Childhood; and by Dr. Friedmann,Centralblatt für Anthropologie, Bd. i. The last mentioned argues that the mind of the savage has more points of resemblance to the insane than to the child mind. The higher emotional susceptibility of savages can be illustrated by abundant examples.

[11]Ethnography and Philology of the United States Exploring Expedition, p. 108.

[12]The case was not exceptional. Among several tribes it was an established custom for a mother to kill and eat her first child, as it was believed to strengthen her for later births. See examples inZeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, Bd. xiv., pp. 460,sq.

[13]Palmer inJour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xiii., pp. 294, 399.

[14]Professor Sayce believes that the Sumerian of ancient Babylonia was genderless; and that the local gods were first endowed with sex on being adopted by the Semites.—Hibbert Lectures, p. 176.

[15]Cuoq,Lexique Algonquine, p. 21, note.

[16]The Golden Bough, Preface.

[17]Ed. Clodd,Myths and Dreams, p. 168.

[18]Besides the general works on Egyptian religion, I may note R. Pietschmann, “Aegypt. Fetischdienst und Götterglaube,” inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, Bd. x., s. 153,sq.He points out that there was no unity in the ancient cults of Egypt, as the gods were those of the nomes only. The worship of Osiris did not prevail generally till after the sixth dynasty (p. 165).

[19]Some have explained superstition as “degenerate religion”; others as “religious error”; others (Pfleiderer) as “a pathological condition of normal belief”; but all such definitions depend on the view-point. As Roskoff remarks: “The man who is plunged in superstition is sure to hold it for the only true faith, and is contented with it so long as he is not troubled with doubts.”—Das Religionswesen der Naturvölker, p. 17.

[20]See T. Rhys Davids,Indian Buddhism, p. 29 (Hibbert Lectures), and in the first volume of the present series of lectures.

[21]Death was to the Roman thesomnum eternale. Prof. Sayce remarks of the ancient Chaldeans that they had no definite belief in an after life.—Hibbert Lectures, p. 358.

[22]The question has been carefully examined by G. Roskoff in his workDas Religionswesen der Rohesten Naturvölker(Leipzig, 1880). He conclusively refutes the assertions that tribes have been encountered without religion.

[23]Calloway,Religious System of the Amazulus, p. 113.

[24]Rev. W. Y. Turner inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. vii., p. 492.

[25]Medicine Men of the Apache, pp. 499, 500.

[26]The question is carefully discussed by Hoernes,Urgeschichte des Menschen, p. 93,sq., who disputes Mortillet’s opinion. The latter is given in hisPréhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 603,sq.

[27]The Descent of Man, p. 95.

[28]Quoted inL’Anthropologie, vol. viii., p. 334.

[29]Granger,Religion of the Romans, p. 21; Thiele,Hist. of the Egyptian Religion, Introd.

[30]Dr. Schwaner, in H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak, vol. ii., App. p. clxii.

[31]H. Grimme,Mohammed, p. 38.

[32]In his Preface toThe Revolt of Islam.

[33]O. Peschel,Völkerkunde, s. 255; F. Ratzel,Ethnographie, Bd. i;—Schurtz,Catechismus der Völkerkunde, s. 88.

[34]The eminent anthropologist Broca denied thatreligiosityis a distinctive trait of humanity. See further in Hovelacque et Hervé,Précis d’Anthropologie, pp. 634-636.

[35]Myth, Ritual, and Religion, vol. i., chap. xi.

[36]Hibbert Lectures, p. 328. Darwin has a parallel passage,Descent of Man, p. 95.

[37]“Everything, animate or inanimate, which has an independent being, or can be individualised, possesses a spirit, or, more properly, a shade (idahi, a shadow, or reflection).” Washington Matthews,Ethnog. of the Hidatsa, p. 48. This expresses the generalWeltanschauungof the savage mind. Let it be remembered that it is also characteristic of the poetic, or personifying representation of nature, and thus belongs to the highest artistic expressions of the human mind as well as to its feeblest utterances.

[38]This was the universal opinion of classical antiquity. See Payne Knight,Ancient Art, p. 45. It was also the orthodox theory of the early Church concerning the redeemed soul. It “will know all things as God doth. Whatsoever is in Heaven and whatsoever is in earth, everything will he see with that veritable knowledge which nothing escapeth.”—Select Works of St. Ephrem the Syrian, translated by Rev. J. B. Morris, p. 353.

[39]Ridley, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. ii., p. 269.

[40]Mr. A. E. Gough gives reasons for the opinion that theyogin, who practises theyoga, is a lineal follower of the ancient local shaman.—Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 221.

[41]This curious recent development of most ancient experience is described by Dr. M. Bucke in the work,In Re Walt Whitman.

[42]The phenomena of “demoniac possession” are so remarkable, and so frequent in lower conditions of culture that they have been defended as the actual influence of evil spirits by intelligent modern observers (see the work of Rev. Dr. Nevins,Demoniac Possession in China, etc.). Bishop Calloway says most of the negro converts in Natal have such attacks after embracing Christianity (Jour. Anthrop. Society, vol. i., p. 171). Brough Smith describes such attacks among the Australians. Strong men are suddenly seized with violent convulsions. They dance wildly, scream at the top of their voices, foam at the mouth, and continue until utterly exhausted. They are homicidal when in this condition, and their companions fear to approach them (The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 466).

[43]The most complete study of this subject in connection with the development of religions is the work of Dr. Otto Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Völkerpsychologie(Leipzig, 1894).

[44]Bishop Calloway, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, i., p. 177; and in hisReligious System of the Amazulu, p. 232. The Bushmen explain it as “a kind of beating of the flesh,” which tells them the future, and where lost things may be found. They add: “Those who are stupid do not understand this teaching.”—Bleek,Bushman Folk-lore, p. 17.

[45]A. E. Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 243.

[46]Klemm,Allgemeine Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 337; A. M. Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 48.

[47]Curr notes this among the Australians,ubi supra, vol. i., p. 48; and it is general among American Indians.

[48]W. W. Gill,Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35.

[49]Middendorf,Keshua Wörterbuch, s. v.

[50]Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1896. Sect. H.

[51]On the meaning ofhuacasee von Tschudi,Beiträge zur Kennt. des alten Peru, p. 156; Bertonio,Vocab. de la Lengua Aymara, s. v.

[52]The probable identity of Heb.Iahwith Chald.Iahis acknowledged by Pinches, Sayce, and other eminent Assyriologists (see an article by the former, in theProc.of the Victorian Institute for 1895). That the Greek Iachus is from the Chaldeo-Syrian (as his myth claims, referring to him as “The Assyrian stranger,” etc., L. DyerThe Gods in Greece, p. 165) was maintained by Herodotus, Macrobius, and Plutarch, among the ancients, and by various modern authors. It can be shown, however, thatYahas a name of God was derived from a sacred interjection or cry of the same phonetic value, which recurs repeatedly in the cults of America, Polynesia, and Australia. This is also true ofhuaorwa, the radical of the English “God.” They are both what have been called “universal” radicals.

[53]Codrington inJour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. x., p. 279; Fornander,The Polynesian Race, vol. iii., pp. 225-7. In some dialectsmanahas the special meanings, omen; the thunder; the breath; the belly (i.e., the interior), etc. Hale gives the definition “power” as common to all dialects (Polynesian Lexicon, s. v.). Fornander notes the similarity to Sanscrit,mana,manu, mind, thought.

[54]I have dwelt on the absence of monotheism among the American tribes inMyths of the New World, p. 75. Dr. Washington Matthews, a most competent, authority, expresses the universally correct view, when, speaking of Mahopa, the divine conception of the Hidatsa Indians, he says: “It refers to an influence or power above all things, but not attaching to it any ideas of personality.”—Ethnography of the Hidatsa Indians, p. 48.

[55]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 338; L. M. Turner,The Hudson Bay Eskimos, p. 272; von den Steinen,Die Naturvölker Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 340. Among the Australians, both men and women become “doctors” or shamans by dreaming.—Curr,The Australian Race, vol., ii., p. 74.

[56]These are called “hypnogogic hallucinations.” They have been studied by Maury,Annales Medico-psychologiques, tome xi., p. 252,sq.

[57]This point is discussed by Professor Granger,Worship of the Romans, pp. 28,sq.

[58]Bishop Calloway describes the regimen adopted to become inspired among the Zulus, inJour. Anthrop. Soc., vol. i., p. 175. Among the Dyaks of Borneo the ceremony is callednampok, and its conditions are: 1. To be alone; 2. To pass the night on a mountain top; 3. To offer a sacrifice and call for the god. Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., p. 185.

[59]I have treated this question at some length in myMyths of the New World, p. 314, andNagualism, p. 7,sq.

[60]I have given a translation of it inEssays of an Americanist, p. 293.

[61]A. E. Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 237. The Mexican adjurations referred to are given by Sahagun,Historia de Nueva España, lib. x., cap. 29.

[62]W. W. Gill,Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, pp. 28, 34. The concrete meaning of both words is pith, kernel, core, centre, etc.

[63]Hale,Ethnography of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, p. 55; Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., s. 315; after Stoll. The Algonkian myth relates that the hero-god Nanabojou could converse with the spirits of all things, with trees, flowers, butterflies, the thunder, etc. (Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 113).

[64]Elysée Reclus,Le Primitif d’Australie, p. 232.

[65]The Greeks had but vague notions of an after life, and Professor Schrader remarks: “The cult of the dead has no place in the Homeric world.”Prehist. Antiqs. of the Aryan Peoples, p. 424. The “indigetes dii” of the Romans were rather heroes than divinities, though Arnobius,Adv. Gentes, lib. i., cap. 64, asserts that they were worshipped.

[66]The most satisfactory recent study on the worship of ancestors and of the dead, is that by Dr. S. R. Steinmetz in hisEthnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, Bd. i., ss. 141-287 (Leiden, 1894).

[67]Clark,Indian Sign Language, pp. 121, 165, 199, 207, etc.; Howitt inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. xiii., p. 186. If one wakes a sleeper suddenly, he may die, as his vagrant soul may not get back in time. Von den Steinen,Naturvölker Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 510. In all these primitive views the real soul is regarded as merely a tenant of the body (not a function or the result of functions), as it is to-day in the popular religions of civilised lands.

[68]The fear of ghosts in civilised countries is the survival of a wide-spread, ancient belief in the malevolence of souls. I have found no instance of this more striking than among the Finns. They believed that the souls of the dead lie in wait for the living, in order to kill and eat them, especially their hearts and lungs, so that the slain could not live again. The ghosts did not spare their nearest relatives, and the story is told of an old man, who warned his beloved young wife not to follow his corpse to the grave, or his ghost would eat her. She disobeyed, and saved herself only by pronouncing the name of God.Cong. Internat. d’Archéologie de Moscou, Tom. ii., p. 316. In about one third of known savage tribes, the ghosts are considered kind and friendly to the survivors. See Steinmetz’s analysis in hisEntwicklung der Strafe, Bd. i., s. 142,sq.

[69]Friedrich Freihold,Die Lebensgeschichte der Menschheit, Bd. i., s. 35.

[70]Baiame is from the verb bhai.Jour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. viii., p. 242. The “Nurali” of the Murray River tribes is also an embodiment of light. B. B. Smyth,Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 423.

[71]Gill,Myths and Songs, p. 13; Fornander,The Polynesian Race, vol. iii., p. 153.

[72]Gill,ubi supra, pp. 3, 17, 44.

[73]E. W. Man, inJour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. xii., p. 166.

[74]Th. Hahn,Tsuni ǁGoam, pp. 124, 126.

[75]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 186;Jour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. x., p. 285.

[76]Myths of the New World, pp. 97, 165, etc.

[77]Fornander,Polynesian Race, vol. i., p. 78; Gill,Myths and Songs, p. 18.

[78]Musters,Among the Patagonians, ch. v.; Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. ii., App., p. clxx.; Hahn,Tsuni ǁGoam, p. 37.

[79]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 189.

[80]Castren observes: “Es hat innerhalb der weitgestreckten Gränzen Asiens kaum ein einziges Volk gegeben, welches nicht den Himmel verehrt hätte.”—Finnische Mythologie, p. 14. He might as well have said, “the habitable globe” instead of Asia only.

[81]Matthew, v., 34.

[82]Hopkins,Religions of India, pp. 62,seq.

[83]Gill,ubi supra, pp. 10-14; Sir George Grey,Polynesian Mythology, ch. i.

[84]B. Brough Smith,Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i., p. 457.

[85]Notably by Prof. F. L. W. Schwartz in his numerous works, and in his contributions to theZeitschrift für Ethnologie, etc.

[86]The Hebrew name Jahve (Jehovah) is derived by some from the verb “to thunder.” In the Vedas, Parjanja, the Thunderer, is a conspicuous figure. Mumpal, the Thunder, say the Australians, created all things. (Reise der Fregatte Novara, Anthrop. Theil, s. ix.) Among the Bechuanas, “When it thunders, every one trembles, and each asks the other, ‘Is there anyone among us who has devoured the wealth of others?’” (Calloway,Relig. System of the Amazulu, p. 117). Any number of other examples could be added.

[87]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 64; Honegger,Culturgeschichte, Bd. i., s. 332.

[88]Castren,Finnische Mythologie, p. 17.

[89]Gough,Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 17.

[90]I refer especially to the results of the physical investigations of Helmholtz, and to their logical application to mental science, by George J. Romanes, in hisMind and Motion; to the position of Prof. Paulsen in hisIntroduction to Philosophy; and to such lines of thought as are presented in Professor Dolbear’sMatter, Ether, and Motion.

[91]Related in Gill’sMyths and Songs of the South Pacific. M. van Ende, in hisHistoire Naturelle de la Croyance, p. 83, sq., has some suggestive remarks on sound as regarded by primitive nations as a mark of life. Hence, their myths of brooks, trees, etc., as conscious beings.

[92]A Lenormant,Chaldean Magic, p. 96.

[93]E. F. Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 60. “Nothing more colors Hindu life,” writes Mr. Walhouse, “than the belief in the efficacy ofmantras—forms of prayer or powerful words, by which all the relations of life may be influenced, and even the gods may be bound.”—Jour. Anthrop, Inst., vol. xiv., p. 189.

[94]Curr,The Australian Race, vol. i., p. 48.

[95]Report of Com. of N. South Wales to the Columbian Exposition, p. 7.

[96]Sayce,Hibbert Lectures, p. 309.

[97]Lenormant,Chaldean Magic, p. 63.

[98]Brinton,Myths of the New World, p. 318.

[99]The appropriate rite thus to destroy an enemy is described by Curr,The Australian Race, vol. ii., p. 610.

[100]Popol Vuh, le Livre Sacré des Quiches, p. 10.

[101]Polynesian Mythology, p. 284.

[102]Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 413.

[103]The expression in the Algonkin tongue for a person of the same name isnind owiawina, “He is another myself” (Cuoq,Lexique Algonquine, p. 113).

[104]Curr,ubi supra, p. 246.

[105]Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., p. 288.

[106]H. Hale,Ethnography of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, p. 288.

[107]Klemm,Culturgeschichte, Bd. ii., p. 329.

[108]This subject has been discussed by Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, pp. 165-184, and other writers. On the “name soul” among the American Indians I have collected material inMyths of the New World, p. 277,sq.Most American and Australian tribes would not name the dead. On the other hand, in the robust religion of the ancient Germans, the names of the loved departed and of great chiefs were shouted out at the banquets, and a horn drained to theirminni, affectionate memory. J. Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, vol. i., p. 59.

[109]Chaldean Magic, p. 104.

[110]The original is in the Turin papyrus.

[111]Granger,Worship of the Romans, p. 277.

[112]Howitt, inJour. Anthrop. Inst., xiii., p. 192.

[113]James Adair,Hist. of the North Am. Indians, p. 54.

[114]Prof. Sayce inHibbert Lectures, p. 305.

[115]Sahagun,Historia de Nueva España, lib. i.,passim;Popol Vuh, cap. i.; Stoll,Ethnographie der Rep. Guatemala, p. 118.

[116]Gill,Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, p. 6.

[117]Comp. W. Robertson Smith,Religion of the Semites, p. 41.

[118]Select Works of St. Ephrem, p. 122. (Trans. by the Rev. J. B. Morris.) The name of Jesus was regarded by the early church as magical in itself. Arnobius says of him, “whose Name, when heard, puts to flight evil spirits, imposes silence on soothsayers, prevents men from consulting the augurs, and frustrates the efforts of magicians.”—Adversus Gentes, lib. i., cap. 46.

[119]See Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 14,seq.

[120]Thepĕtaraof the Borneans is at times used as a personal name of the chief divine being, at others in the vague sense of “duty” or “supernatural.” Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, vol. i., 179. Analogous instances have already been mentioned.

[121]Indian Sign Language, p. 309.

[122]Sir George Grey,Polynesian Mythology, p. 164.

[123]Hyades et Deniker,Mission Scientifique au Cap Horn, p. 376. Earlier voyagers write: “They certainly have ideas of a spiritual existence.”—Narrative of the Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. ii., p. 179.

[124]Ancient Nahuatl Poetry(Philadelphia, 1890);Rig Veda Americanus(Philadelphia, 1890).

[125]Dr. W. Matthews,The Mountain Chant of the Navahoes, p. 465.

[126]Clark,Indian Sign Language, p. 309.

[127]Sahagun,Hist. de Nueva España, lib. vi. Other examples are given by this writer.

[128]Encyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses, s. v. Prière.

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