CHAPTER VIII.RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.

Fig. 252.—The Stone Chat (Saxicola rubicola, Temm.).

Fig. 253.—The Pied Wagtail (Motacilla Yarrelli, Gould.).

TheWagtails(Motacilla, Cuvier) are remarkable for their slender, elegant form; the neck of moderate length; the head ovate, small, and narrow; plumage soft and blended; the wings long, broad, and pointed; tail long, straight, slender, consisting of twelve weak, narrow feathers. The Wagtails are intimately allied to thePipits, and resemble them in many of their habits, differing chiefly in the lengthened tail and shorter claws. Both are remarkable for the vibratory motion of their body while standing or walking, which their long tail renders a conspicuous feature.

Fig. 254.—Quaketails (Motacilla flava, Temm.).

The Pied Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea, Gmelin),Fig. 253, which is generally distributed in England, seems to have been confounded with the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba, Linn.) by naturalists until both species were examined by Mr. Gould. In form and proportion the two species closely resemble each other, the Pied Wagtail being the smaller. Mr. Gould states, in the "Magazine of Natural History," that while preparing his work on the Birds of Europe he was surprised to find that the sprightly Pied Wagtail, so common in our island at all seasons, could not be referred to any described species, and that its habitat was limited to the British Islands, Norway, and Sweden. The trueMotacilla albaof Linnæus, on the other hand, is abundant in France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Calais, but has never been discovered on the opposite Kentish coast.

TheQuaketails(Budytes, Cuv.),Fig. 254, form the transition from the Pipits to the Wagtails, but incline more to the latter.They are theBergeronnettesof French authors. The claw on the hind toe, which is long, and greatly resembles that of the Larks, distinguishes them from Wagtails. They are said to follow flocks of sheep; hence the name given them in France.

Fig. 255.—The Lyretail (Mænura paradisea, Vieill.).

TheTitlarks, orPipits(Anthus), theFarlousesof French writers, approach the Larks by the same characteristics which distinguish the Quaketails, and might be confounded with them were it not for their compressed bill. Hence their name of Meadow Larks. They feed on autumnal fruits.Anthus trivialis, the Tree Pipit;A. pratensis, the Meadow Pipit;A. aquaticus; andA. Ricardiare the British species figured by Mr. Gould.

TheLyretail(Mænura superba, Swainson),Fig. 255, is a bird of New Holland, about the size of a common Fowl, and hasbeen classed by some naturalists among Gallinaceous birds; but Temminck places it in his Insectivorous order, among the Thrushes, and betweenCuculusandPitta. Cuvier places it among the Passerines. Vigors places it in the orderRasores, and in the family of theCracidæ. This curious bird has a long compressed bill, triangular at the base. It owes its name to the peculiar disposition of its tail, which in the male has the exact form of a lyre. The singular development of the feathers of the tail is its chief attraction, for the plumage is dull and sombre in colour. In Australia it inhabits the forests of Eucalyptus; builds its nest in trees, a short distance from the ground; and feeds upon worms and insects, which it seeks for under the dried leaves and the surface of the soil. Its song is described as not unpleasant.

TheOrioles(Oriolus, Linn.) have the bill long, stout, nearly straight, rather broad at the base, the dorsal line arched, and the tarsi very short. They are found in all the warmer parts of the Old World, and in the islands of Oceania. Their plumage is richly coloured, shades of yellow and black blending in great variety.

Fig. 256.—The Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula, Sw.).

The Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula, Wood),Fig. 256, is about the size of the Blackbird, which it much resembles in form. Theplumage is of a bright yellow; the feathers are oblong, with disunited barbs; those on the fore part of the head very short. The wings, when closed, reach to within an inch of the end of the tail; hence its flight is easy and sustained; while the form of its feet is equally well adapted for hopping on the ground and gliding among the branches. It is a shy, solitary bird, and is approached with great difficulty. In the countries where it is a constant visitor it arrives in May, and departs in August; but while it arrives singly, on its return migration it departs in whole families. It establishes itself on the borders of woods, or on the banks of some water-course; especially is it found where there are large trees, such as oaks and poplars, in which it builds its nest. The bird is common in the South of France. It lays from four to six eggs, and during incubation feeds on insects' larvæ and caterpillars, and is especially fond of the more delicate fruits of the sunny South, such as mulberries, cherries, and figs. This food gives a delicious flavour to its flesh, which causes it to be much sought after. The Oriole will not live in confinement. It is theBeccaficaof the Italians.

TheMino(Eulabes javanses, Vieill.),Fig. 257, has been assigned to various families. Swainson places it among theSturnidæ, Gray in the sub-family ofGraculinæ, under the family ofCorvidæ. However, we prefer placing it as we have. They are sought after by the Orientals in consequence of their gentle habits, and the facility with which they imitate, like the Parrakeets, all sorts of phrases, and even airs. Their song is very agreeable.

The Minos have a bill analogous to that of the Orioles; but their general form and habits approximate more to the Starlings, among which they ought to be ranged. They are eminently social in their habits, searching for their food in large flocks, and passing the night in numbers on the same or on neighbouring trees. Their natural disposition being peaceful, lively, and confiding, they appear to prefer the vicinity of man's residence, and the cultivated fields that surround his dwelling. They frequently attend upon flocks of sheep, to feed upon the insects that infest these ruminants' skins. In countries where locusts abound, they are of great service to man by feeding upon them.

The Isle of Bourbon was at one time so infested with locusts that it threatened to become uninhabitable. The idea was entertained of introducing some Minos, and these birds multiplied so fast that in a few years the pests had disappeared. Unfortunately, the services of the Minos had to be paid for dearly, for they showed apenchantfor fruit, and made great havoc among the cherries, mulberry trees, &c. When insects became scarce they even attacked the cereals and other crops.

Fig. 257.—The Mino Bird (Gracula religiosa, Linn.).

These Passerines readily habituate themselves to confinement, and in a short time become as tame as Starlings. Like these birds, too, they possess the talent of remembering and repeating words and various cries. They inhabit Africa, Asia, and Java. In their migrations they sometimes visit the southern countries of Europe; but they are rarely seen in France.

TheHoney-suckers(Meliphagidæ) are remarkable for having a thin tuft of hair at the end of their tongue, and for the fleshy pendants which adorn the beaks of some species. Their plumage is in general brilliant, and ornamented with tufts or collars. The voice of some kinds is very melodious, but little or nothing is known of their habits.

We now come to theRose-coloured Ouzel, which is called in FranceMerle Rose, because it combines the shape of the Blackbird with a breast and back of a lovely rose colour.

The characteristics of the Ouzels are a straight and slender bill; large and stout toes, furnished with strong and hooked claws; and short wings and tail. The decidedly aquatic habits of these birds form a curious exception to the rest of the Passerine order. They live constantly on the edge of the water, or in the water itself, hunting for the insects which constitute their food. Although their toes are not webbed, they may often be noticed diving and moving about under water, by extending their wings and using them as fins. They are frequently to be seen flying along streams, and catching the winged insects skimming over the surface of the water. They live a solitary life, except during the pairing season. Ouzels principally frequent the banks of mountain streams, especially in rocky and precipitous countries.

Fig. 258.—The Dipper, or Water Ouzel (Cinclus aquaticus, Bechst.).

The European species, called the Dipper, or Water Ouzel (Hydrobata cinclus, Wood),Fig. 258, is met with in Great Britain, France, the Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountain chains in the South, West, and North of Europe.

Fig. 259.—The Wood Thrush (Turdus melodus, Wilson).

TheSolitaryorWood Thrushes(Turdus mustillinus, Gm.),Fig. 259, are distinguished from the other Dentirostral Passerines by their long and slender tarsi. They are natives of America, and, in the midst of its vast forests, busy themselves in huntingants, on which they feed. Other insects are not refused by them; but, first and foremost, they areformicivoræ. They fly indifferently, but in running and hopping they are very nimble. Generally speaking, they do not take the trouble of building a nest, preferring to lay their eggs on the ground, on a bed of dry leaves. Their song is of a strange character, differing in its nature in the various species. Some of them have received the name of "Bell-ringer," &c., from the similarity of their note to the sound of a bell. They are wild and shy, and dash their heads against the bars when they are shut up in a cage. Their flesh is appreciated for the table.

TheMerulidægenus is characterised by a flattened, curved, and slightly denticulated bill, and is one of the most numerous of the family, embracing as it does no less than one hundred and fifty species spread plentifully over the whole surface of the globe.

Birds of this genus are, generally speaking, migratory, and travel in more or less numerous flocks. They feed on berries, fruits, and insects, and are endowed with very harmonious powers of song. They have been divided into two great sections, the division being based on the particular arrangement of their colours. First, the section ofMerulæ, which embraces all the species the plumage of which is of a uniform colour; next, that ofTurdi, which contains those of speckled plumage, that is, marked with small dark spots on the breast.

The principal species of the first section are the Common Blackbird, the Rock Blackbird, the Solitary Blackbird, and the Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush.

TheCommon Blackbird(Merula vulgaris, Ray),Fig. 260, is so called on account of its plumage, which in the cock bird is of auniform bright black colour. It delights in neighbourhoods covered with groves and thickets situated in the vicinity of water. When a sufficiency of food is to be found it seldom leaves the district it has frequented. In nearly all the countries of the European continent it is to be met with the year round. These birds appear to be less numerous in winter than in summer, and it is only exceptionally that they are sedentary.

The Blackbird is shy and artful by nature, and shows extreme caution in approaching any object of suspicion. It rarely allows itself to be surprised by man, except when its voracity and greediness lead it into danger; but still, notwithstanding its shyness, it is disposed to frequent public and private gardens, and the vicinity of habitations. When taken young it easily becomes accustomed to captivity.

Fig. 260.—The Common Blackbird (Turdus merula, Linn.).

It builds its nest at a short distance from the ground, on treesor bushes, the hen bird only participating in the labour of building. She lays from four to six eggs.

In the South of Europe this species is much sought after, on account of the exquisite flavour which its flesh acquires from living on myrtle and juniper berries.

TheRing Blackbird(Merula torquata, Gould) differs from the kind we have just noticed in being of larger size, and in the predilection which it shows for mountainous countries. It sings very agreeably, and in France is found on the high summits of the Vosges, the Alps, and the Pyrenees.

TheSolitary Blackbird(Merle Bleuof the French) is remarkable for the deep blue colour of its plumage. It frequents the same regions as the bird last described, and its habits are nearly the same; but it is wilder in its nature, and its song is even still more charming. We read in the chronicles of his time that Francis I. was never weary of listening to the strains of one he possessed. This bird is common in the South of Europe and the whole of the Levant, and when it is tamed acquires considerable value.

Fig. 261.—The Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush (Mimus polyglottus, Briss.).

Of all the various species of theMerulidæthe one which is unquestionably the most favoured, as regards its vocal qualities, is theMocking Bird, orPolyglot Thrush(Turdus polyglottus, Linn.),Fig. 261, a native of North America, and chiefly of theSouthern States. Its notes are so melodious that the conscientious Audubon does not hesitate to rank them far above those of the Nightingale. In addition to this, it possesses the wonderful faculty of imitating the songs of other birds, and even the cries of the mammals which make their abode near it. For this reason the Indians call it the "Bird with Four Hundred Tongues." Being protected by the inhabitants of Louisiana, it does not seem to dread the presence of man, and builds its nest with the utmost publicity in the vicinity of dwellings. When it is captured before leaving the nest it becomes very tame.

The principal species of the Thrush are the Song Thrush, the Redwing, the Mistletoe, and the Fieldfare.

Fig. 262.—The Song Thrush (Turdus musicus, Linn.).

TheSong Thrush, Mavis of the Scotch (Fig. 262), has enjoyed, ever since the days of antiquity, great reputation, not, as we might have desired, for its vocal powers, but for the delicacy of its flesh. The Romans appreciated these birds to such a degree that they were in the habit of fattening them by thousands in immense aviaries, cleverly combining the privation of light with a suitable diet. Nowadays, Thrushes are not fattened artificially, because they take very good care to fatten themselves in their autumnal visit to the South of Europe; for they gorge themselves to such an extent with grapes, figs, and olives, that they attain an incrediblepitch of obesity, causing them to be sought after with avidity, to gratify the fastidious palate of the gourmand. It is even said that Thrushes intoxicate themselves among the vines, which has given rise to the French proverb, "As drunk as a Thrush," in speaking of a man who has been indulging too freely in wine. But this is absurd; although the Thrush may be unable in the autumn to fly away with its usual agility, the only cause is its increased weight.

TheRedwingshares both the good qualities and the defects of the Song Thrush, and it is likewise much esteemed by epicures. The two other species are of less importance in an edible point of view. They are all natives of Europe, and visit the centre and South of France.

Fig. 263.—Tanagers (Tanagra rubra, Nutt.).

TheTanagers(Tanagrinæ) form a genus of birds peculiar to the hot regions of America. They are remarkable for a bill which is tapering and triangular at the base, and for the brilliant colours of their plumage. They are allied by their habits to the Warblers and the Sparrow. They are lively, constantly in motion, and but seldom settle down on the ground. In general life they resort about among trees and bushes to collect berries, seeds, and insects. According to the species, they live either solitarily, in families, or in flocks. Some kinds have an agreeable song; amongthese are the Euphones (beautiful voices), or Bullfinch Tanagers. Those which are most richly endowed, as regards the splendour of their dress, are the Scarlet Tanager, the Cardinal Tanager, the Bishop Tanager, and the Black-throated Tanager.

The Grosbeak Tanager (Tanagra magna, Cuvier) is remarkable for the sociability of its nature. It has received this name because, with the help of its companions, it is in the habit of building on the top of a palm tree a vast construction, divided into a certain number of compartments, which are portioned out to so many couples, to hold their nests and young broods.

Fig. 264.—The Tufted Drongo (Tephrodomis, Sw.).

TheDrongo Shrikes(Dicrurinæ, Sw.) resemble a Crow in their shape and a Blackbird in their size. They have a carinated beak, pretty strongly curved, and a forked tail. The ground of their plumage is black, with a green or blue metallic reflection. They live in small flocks in the forests of India, Polynesia, and South Africa. They are great destroyers of bees. The better to accomplish this, they post themselves, at morning and evening, at the skirts of a wood, on a tree which is dead or bare of leaves, and watch for them as they leave or regain their retreats. When they attack their prey, they fly down from their post of observation, and from their great activity make terrible massacre of the unfortunate insects.

Their turbulent and noisy nature has been the means of gaining for them among the Hottentots, who look upon them as birds of evil omen, the name of "Devil-birds." Their flesh is of no value; but some species are said to sing in a way which is not unpleasing. In the Broad-tailed Drongo the two outside feathers of the tail are long filaments, terminating in square-pointed feathers. We give (Fig. 264) the representation of another species, the Tufted Drongo.

The genusCotingais characterised by a short, flattened, curved, and stout bill. It embraces as sub-genera the Cotinga proper, the Caterpillar-eaters, and the Chatterers.

Fig. 265.—The Brilliant Cotinga (Coracina scutata, Temm.).

TheCotingaorCoracinaproper is a bird about the size of a Thrush; it inhabits Brazil and Guiana, and is remarkable, during the pairing season, for its brilliant and variegated plumage. It frequents damp localities in the midst of great forests, and its food consists of seeds, fruit, and insects. It is very shy in its nature, and cannot habituate itself to captivity. Its rich colours alone cause it to be admired, for its voice is by no means melodious, and its flesh is too bitter for human food. The most beautiful species are the Pompadour Cotinga and the Brilliant Cotinga (Fig. 265).

Caterpillar-eaters(Ceblepyrinæ) owe their name to the source from which they derive their principal sustenance; butthey also feed on flies and the larvæ of insects. They differ from the preceding kinds both in their habitat and in the more sombre colour of their plumage. The Cotingas are only met with in America; and the Caterpillar-eaters are not found except in Southern Africa and the Indian Archipelago.

TheChatterers(Ampelidæ) are sociable birds, living together in flocks the whole of the year, except during the breeding season. They feed on buds, berries, and insects; they even catch flies on the wing. They are, nevertheless, extremely indolent, and do not move about more than is necessary to satisfy the requirements of appetite. The greater part of their time they remain hid in the recesses of woods, and are rarely seen; they settle little on the ground, for their gait is awkward and constrained. Not endowed, properly speaking, with any powers of song, their only utterance is a feeble twittering, which, in some species, is very prolonged. The Bohemian Waxwing is noisy at all seasons; and this is probably the origin of the name Chatterer, which is given to the whole genus. They are tamed with great facility, and, as they are adorned with a brilliant plumage, they are often reared in cages. These birds are found in Europe, North America, and Japan.

Fig. 266.—Bohemian Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus, Wood).

The European species (Fig. 266) breeds in northern countries,and migrates to Germany at the approach of winter. It is rarely met with in France. It is a very pretty bird, carrying a floating tuft on the top of its head.

Fig. 267.—The Spotted Fly-catcher (Muscicapa grisola, White).

The birds belonging to the Fly-catcher genus (Muscicapidæ) have a flattened and hooked bill, furnished with a projecting edge, and with stiff hair at the base. They are divided into Fly-catchers proper, Tyrants, andEurylaiminæ.

Fig. 268.—King Fly-catcher (Eurylaimus serilophus, Sw.).

TheFly-catcherproper feeds on insects, which it catches on the wing with a vivacity and agility which are extraordinary. It sometimes adds to its fare caterpillars and ants, and it never settles on the ground except when in pursuit of prey. Theyare birds of taciturn and solitary habits, frequenting alone the depths of forests, or the margin of sluggish streams. They are silent even during the pairing season, and are rather negligent in their mode of building, taking no care to hide their nests from the view of their enemies. According to the species, they build either on trees and bushes, or in the crevices of walls, rocks, or under the eaves of roofs. The hen bird lays from three to six eggs once a year in Europe, but more frequently in other parts of the world.

Fig. 269.—The Long-tailed Tyrant (Milvulu, Sw.).

The Fly-catchers are not larger than the Warblers. They are birds of passage, and various species of them are spread over the whole surface of the globe. Some are natives of Europe, among which we will name the Spotted Fly-catcher (Fig. 267), and the Pied Fly-catcher. The latter bird is very fond of fruit, and in the South of France it is killed for the delicacy of its flesh. Thecommon name there given it,Bec-figue, is also applied to a species of the Warbler genus.

The Fan-tailed Fly-catchers (Rhipidura flabellifera, Latham) are birds of the same size and with the same habits as the Fly-catchers proper. They differ in nothing but their plumage, which is much more brilliant, their more fully developed tail, and the beautiful tufts which adorn the heads of some species. They are natives of Africa, India, Polynesia, and America. The species which may serve as a type is theEurylaimus serilophus(Fig. 268), on account of a magnificent red tuft, edged with black, which spreads out round its head, and resembles a splendid diadem. It is a native of South America, and is a very rare bird in collections.

Fig. 270.—Cephalopterus ornatus (Coracina cephaloptera, Vieill.).

TheTyrants(Fig. 269) owe their name to their courageous, audacious, and quarrelsome character, which leads them to attack birds more powerful than themselves, such as some of the smaller birds of prey, and even the White-headed Eagle. It must be added, too, that they more often than not succeed in forcing these robbers to quit the neighbourhood in which the Tyrant's young brood is reposing. They feed on insects, small reptiles, and some times very small fish. They are found in South America only, and principally in Brazil and Guiana.

TheCephalopterus ornatus(Less.),Fig. 270, has some resemblanceto Crows, both in size and plumage. Their name, which in Greek signifies "winged-head," is given them on account of a wide crest which spreads out above their heads like a parasol. Added to this, the front of the neck is bare, but the lower part is furnished with a thick tuft of feathers, which hang down over the breast. These birds are natives of the forests of Brazil, but little or nothing is known as to their habits. The wide shape of the bill would suggest that they feed chiefly on berries and fruit.

TheShrikegenus concludes the Passerine order. It comprises a certain number of birds with tapering or flattened bills, more or less hooked at the point, and deeply indented, and which resemble the Rapacious order in their quarrelsome nature, and in their taste for live flesh. Among them are classed the Great Grey Shrike, the Red-backed Shrike, the Vangas, and the Cassicus.

The Shrikes proper possess the instinct of destruction in the very highest degree. They delight in shedding blood and in spreading death wherever they go; indeed, their evil disposition has become proverbial. Not satisfied with killing with a view of satisfying the lawful needs of hunger, they sacrifice, as if for mere pleasure, insects, birds, and small mammals. They afterwards impale them upon the thorns of bushes and hedges.

But still we must not condemn these birds with too great a degree of severity. No doubt there is, to some extent, cruelty in their actions; but, first and foremost, we are bound to recognise the foresight which they show. These victims are stored as a supply in time of need. It is a mistake to think that all creatures which they attack are smaller than themselves. Although not large, they are not afraid of a contest with Ravens, Magpies, and even some of the birds of prey, when called upon to defend their young.

Shrikes generally inhabit extensive woods. During the daytime they post themselves in the top branches of the trees, from which they pounce down upon their prey. They fly rather indifferently, but hover with great ease. Their twittering is continual, and some of their melodies are not entirely devoid of charm. They are remarkable for their talent of imitation, and reproduce the songs of all the other birds with such similarity as to be mistaken for them. Some even go so far as to assert that theyabuse this faculty by deceiving small birds, whose song they imitate.

Fig. 271.—The Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor, Wood).

They migrate every year, and at the time of their journey are much sought after for the table; for their flesh, being covered with abundant layers of fat, is very rich. It is a curious fact that, in spite of their cross-grained nature, they are very easily tamed. They cannot, however, accommodate themselves to close captivity, their active natures requiring a more extended field of action; such, for instance, as a large aviary affords. When kept in a place of this kind, they become very friendly, and appear to be fully sensible of the caresses of their master.

Shrikes are common in all parts of the globe. Seven species are known in Europe, the principal of which are the Great Grey Shrike (Fig. 271), the Red-backed Shrike (Fig. 272), and the Southern Shrike. In France these birds are hardly ever found, except in the southern departments.

Fig. 272.—The Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio, Wood).

Fig. 273.—The Cassicus.

The Falcon Shrikes are sometimes called Swallow Shrikes, because they fly with as much ease as the Swallow, and, like thelatter bird, pursue insects on the wing. Their habits, however, differ but little from those of the true Shrike. They are natives of Africa, India, and the Southern Archipelago.

The Vangas (Buffon) bear a still greater similarity to the Shrike proper. Their habits of life are altogether the same; but they are found only in South Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea.

Lastly, the Cassicus (Fig. 273) belongs to America, and holds an intermediate place between the Shrike and the Crow, the latter of which it resembles in its gait, size, and plumage. In its habits it is clamorous, turbulent, and omnivorous. It may be readily recognised by its long bill and the feathers in front of its head.

The Raptores enjoy a greater amount of public notoriety than almost any other birds, although they are of little or no service to us, and possess infinitely fewer claims to our interest than a multitude of other winged creatures. The audacity and courage by which several species are distinguished, the marvellous stories to which their exploits have given rise, and the superstitious terror caused by their appearance may help to explain the reason of their popularity. Poets and novel-writers, in order to characterise their heroes, have often inspired them with the qualities or defects of some of the Rapacious birds. They have made the Eagle a type of nobility, strength, and valour; the Vulture the incarnation of cowardly and unclean cruelty. The Owl, with its staring aspect and noiseless flight, has become with them a bird of ill omen; its doleful hoot echoing through the shades of night, over the house of sickness, is an infallible prediction of death. These superstitions have had considerable influence upon popular imagination, and have thus passed into habitual use in conversation.

The Rapacious order is characterised by a very strong, hooked, and sharp-edged bill, which is furnished at its base with a membrane called thecere—it is generally of a yellow colour, and upon it the nostrils open; strong legs, covered with feathers; four toes, three in front and one behind, which are usually very flexible, and provided with crooked and retractile talons, often possessed of considerable strength. Their powers of vision are very great, and they are marvellously organised for flight; their long and vigorous wings enabling them to hover in the highest regions of the air,and to travel over immense distances in an incredibly short space of time.

Their generic name sufficiently indicates that they live only by rapine, and are naturally plunderers and bloodthirsty. They correspond, in the class of Birds, with the Carnivora among Mammalia. Like them, they live on animals, either dead or living; like them, too, they possess the strength and adroitness which are necessary to satisfy their sanguinary appetites.

With her ever-admirable foresight Nature has wisely limited the reproduction of these destructive creatures—the largest only lay two eggs a year; the others, on an average, five or six. It is a singular thing that the female is often nearly a third bigger than the male; hence the name of "tarsel," given to the latter in certain species.

The Raptores present none of the grace and charming prattle of other races of birds. They enjoy no powers of song; their sole utterance consists either of harsh cries or strange and plaintive modulations. Their plumage, which is nearly always of a sombre colour, is sad and monotonous in its appearance. Destruction is the sole object of their existence; they are the terror of all the rest of the feathered creation, among which they every day make numerous victims. They live alone, or in couples, in the most deserted places; it is only exceptionally that they gather together in flocks, and then merely to devour in common some putrid carrion. They are of a despotic and combative temperament, and will not suffer any rivals in their neighbourhood. They practise absolutism in its strictest form, and reign as lords and masters in the districts which they choose for their territory.

The Raptores are met with over the whole surface of the globe; the larger species inhabit lofty mountains, or seek a hiding-place in the face of inaccessible and solitary cliffs.

This order is divided into two sub-orders, the Nocturnal and the Diurnal. This division is a very rational one, for it is founded on dissimilarity of habits, which is owing to a difference of organisation.

Nocturnal birds of prey are distinguished by large staring eyes, directed straight in front, and surrounded by a circle of slender and stiff feathers, which, by their circular radiation round the face, form a nearly complete disk, to which the name offacial diskhas been given; by the large development of their head; by very short bills, devoid of cere, which is replaced by a plain skin covered with hairs; by tarsi feathered down to the claws; by the mobility of the outside toe, which can be turned either forwards or backwards; by very strong, sharp, and retractile claws; by abundant and soft plumage; and by tails which are generally short.

But the original characteristic of these birds, and that which has contributed to their union in one group, is their inability to bear the light of mid-day, and the faculty they possess of being able to see in twilight, owing to the pupils of their eyes having enormous powers of dilation. They therefore remain hidden in their retreats while the sun is high, and do not begin to hunt until the luminary has approached the horizon, when they are able to distinguish with surprising clearness the objects on which they prey.

We are not, however, bound to believe that these birds can see in the midst of perfect darkness. When the night is thoroughly obscure they again become subject to the law common to all. The epithet of "nocturnal," which is applied to them, is, therefore, not strictly accurate, and must not be taken literally. They manifest the greatest amount of activity when the moon diffuses her light over the earth; then it is that they revel in their destructive instincts, levying a heavy tax on all weaker animal life.

The Raptores have the sense of hearing strongly developed, owing to the large cavities existing in their skulls, which communicate with the internal ear, and thus increase the capacity of this organ.

Their plumage is streaked with diversely-arranged markings, and is quite as soft and delicate as the down of fledglings. These peculiarities are probably owing to the special conditions of their existence. Constantly deprived as they are of the rays of thesun, the action of which upon colour of plumage cannot be doubted, they are not arrayed in those splendid hues which clothe diurnal birds of tropical regions.

Owing to the structure and nature of their feathers, nocturnal birds of prey fly without making the least noise. They can, therefore, pounce unawares on their victims, seizing them before they have any idea of necessity for escape. When they lay hold of their prey it is immediately devoured—an easy matter on account of the enormous expansion of their bills. Their stomach afterwards separates the indigestible parts, such as bones, hair, and feathers, and when these are rolled together in the shape of a ball or pellet, they are ejected by vomiting. Diurnal birds of prey which subsist on living animals possess the same power.

With the exception of the Barn Owl, nocturnal birds of prey all lay eggs of a spherical shape. They live in couples, only assembling in flocks at the epoch of migration; they never, however, hunt in common. They do not build any nest, but deposit their eggs in cavities in old trunks of trees or ruined habitations. They exhale a disagreeable and unwholesome smell, which is no doubt owing to their exclusively animal diet.

A nocturnal bird of prey, unless forced, never comes out of its lurking-place during day. When compelled by circumstances to do so, it is assailed by all the Passerines of the neighbourhood, which resent its intrusion, and avenge the oppression exercised over them during the night, by combined attacks. It places itself in the strangest postures, ruffles up its feathers, and balances its head with a stupid look, making its bill crack, when so assaulted. It does not, however, try to defend itself, and passively receives the blows of its feathered enemies, which do it but little harm. This natural antipathy of small birds for their nocturnal destroyers has been taken advantage of for purposes of sport. The method of catching birds by calling is founded upon it. Imitating the voice of an Owl, the birds flock together and perch on the trees or bushes in the suspected neighbourhood, where twigs covered with birdlime have been abundantly scattered. This operation must take place about an hour before sunset; if later, it would not be successful. This way of catching birds was in use in the days of antiquity, for Aristotle has given us a description of it.

The Owl has given rise to more fables and prejudices than any living creature, doubtless in consequence of its peculiarities. Although inoffensive in general, and even useful—for they destroy a large quantity of rats and mice—in the rural districts nocturnal birds of prey have occasioned so much superstition and terror, that they have been hunted down with the utmost animosity.

The Greeks dedicated the Owl to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, no doubt on account of the calm and grave attitude which distinguishes it, and gives it the air of a philosopher meditating on the problems of life.

Mr. Swainson divides Owls into three groups—namely, Typical Owls, Horned Owls, and Hawk Owls; for simplicity and brevity we prefer making only two families—namely, those with horns and those without.

Horned Owls are distinguished by two tufts or horns of feathers placed on each side of their head. They are subdivided into three genera—the Great Horned Owls, the Long-eared Owls, and Small Horned Owls.

TheCommon Great Owl(Bubo maximus),Fig. 274, is the most remarkable of the family on account of its size and strength. Its height is, on an average, two feet, and it is justly acknowledged as the king of nocturnal birds. Its bill and claws are of a black colour, very strong and hooked. Its plumage is russet, variegated with black spots and brown stripes; its wings, when extended, are not less than five feet across. Its eyes are large and fixed, with black pupils surrounded with yellow. It bears light with less inconvenience than the other nocturnal birds, and therefore goes out sooner in the evening and returns home later in the morning. This bird makes its home among the clefts of rocks, or in the recesses of old towers situated on the mountains, which elevated ground it but rarely leaves to descend into the plain. Its cry,huibou, houhou, bouhou, ouhou, resounding in the silence of the night, is a source of terror to those animals which form its prey. It feeds principally upon hares, rabbits, moles, rats, and mice. Now and then, and especiallywhen rearing its young, which are very voracious, it devours toads, frogs, and small reptiles.

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