The Cormorant(Phalacrocorax).

Fig. 103.—Gannet (Sula Bassan).

These birds are found in every part of the globe, giving the preference, however, to tropical countries; still they are plentiful in the Hebrides, in Norway, Scotland, and are even found as farnorth as Kamtschatka and the Gulf of Bothnia, according to Acerbi. But when residents of high latitudes, they migrate southward on the approach of cold weather. In the winter season they frequent the coast of Cornwall, and are found, in fact, in every part of the British and Irish Channel, generally keeping out at sea. They are constant attendants on the large quantities of herrings and pilchards that frequent our coast late in autumn.

This bird takes its prey by darting down on it with great velocity; yet it does not appear to dive—swimming, it floats upon the water with the buoyancy of a gull, not submerged, as is the case with the Shag and Cormorant.

Three species of them are known: the Solan Goose, or Gannet (Sula Bassan), which is very common on the Bass Rock, a small islet in the Firth of Forth, and on the northern islands—this is the only European species; the Common Gannet (Sula dactylatra), vulgarly called "Mouche de Velours"—this is smaller than the preceding, and is found in the Island of Ascension; the Brown Gannet (Sula fusca), which inhabits South America.

English Synonyms.—Cormorant: Willoughby, Albin, Montagu. Great Cormorant: Bewick, Yarrell. Crested Cormorant: Bewick. Cormorant: Shaw, Latham, Lewin, Walcot, Pultney. Provincial: Great Black Cormorant, Cole Goose, Skart, Green Cormorant, Norie.

Latin Synonyms.—Carbo carboranus: Meyer.Pelicanus carbo: Linn., Latham, Gwellin.Corvus aquaticus: Ray, Willoughby.Phalacrocorax: Brisson, Temminck, Cuvier, Bonaparte.Halicus: Illiger.Hydrocorax: Vieillot.

The Cormorant is distinguished by a bill straight and compressed, the upper mandible curving downwards, and forming a hook at the termination; lower mandible inserted in a small membrane extending under the throat; feet strong, short; toes three before and one behind, united by a membrane; nail of the middle toe serrated; wings moderate, the first quill longer than the second, the whole being blackish; the upper part of the back and wings ashy brown, or bronzed in the middle, bordered by a large band of glossy greenish black.

The Common Cormorant (Fig. 104) has a massive and rather awkward body, feet short and drawn back to the abdomen, the head flattened and small, the guttural pouch very small. Their bulk varies, according to the species, from the size of a Goose to that of a Teal. On the south coast of England they are large birds, Pennant having weighed one which exceeded seven pounds, and measured three feet four inches. Their blackish plumage has given the idea of some resemblance existing between them and the Crow; hence their name, "Cormorant," fromCorvus vorans, which signifies a voracious Crow.

Fig. 104.—Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo, Gould).

These birds have a wide geographical distribution, being found in all parts of the globe, and always on the sea-coast or at the mouths of rivers. They are excellent swimmers and clever divers, pursuing with extraordinary rapidity the fish on which they feed.

The Cormorant swallows its prey head first; and if it happens to catch it by the wrong end, it will throw it up in the air, and seize it again in its bill as it descends in the proper position. When it has caught an eel, a good half-hour sometimes elapses before it can succeed in swallowing it. It may be seen making the most violent efforts to swallow its prey; and just at the moment when one would think that the slippery morsel was successfully absorbed, the fish suddenly reappears again from the depths ofits living sepulchre, still straggling to escape; the Cormorant re-swallows it again; the eel still resists, and increases its efforts to escape; worn out at last by its prolonged and useless efforts, the victim is finally compelled to resign itself to its fate.

The appetite of the Cormorant is insatiable. The havoc which it commits in rivers is very great, for one day's consumption frequently amounts to six or eight pounds of fish: these it pursues principally under water, for it is an expert diver, and most successful in its search for its prey. In consequence of the skill displayed by the Cormorant in fishing, and the ease with which it is tamed, it is reared in a semi-domestic state in certain parts of Eastern Asia. The Chinese and Japanese are the nations who best know how to utilise the habits of these birds. When thus used a ring is placed round their necks to prevent them swallowing their prey, before turning them loose in waters which abound with the finny tribes. The Cormorants, trained to obey their master's voice, and balked in their attempts to swallow by the ring round the neck, bring to their owner all fish they capture. Sir George Stanton, in his embassy to China, having reached Len-tze, famed for its breed of these birds, found them to be a species somewhat resembling the Common Cormorant, described by Dr. Shaw as a Brown Cormorant with white throat, the body whitish beneath, spotted with brown; the tail rounded; irides blue, and bill yellow; which he namedPhalacrocorax sinensis. "On a large lake," Sir George says, "close to this part of the canal, and to the eastward of it, are thousands of small boats and rafts built entirely for this species of fishery. On each boat or raft are ten or a dozen birds, which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into the water; and it is astonishing to see the enormous size of fish with which they return. They appeared to be so well trained that it did not require either ring or cord round their necks to prevent them swallowing their prey, except when they received the permission of their master to do so, as an encouragement for their labours."

The dexterity with which the Cormorant seizes its prey is such that if a dead fish is thrown into the water from a distance, the bird will dive immediately, pursuing its course in a direct line to thespot, never failing to secure it, even before it reaches to the bottom. On shore the Cormorant is a dull, heavy bird, and it is only in the water, and especially while fishing, that it appears to advantage. It floats so low in the water, and swims and dives so quickly, that it seldom fails to capture its prey. Now on the surface, next moment below, onward it plunges as if making an attack; then rising suddenly in some unexpected spot after a lengthened dive, it is certain to have the unfortunate fish in its bill.

Another peculiarity which belongs to this species is common with many other aquatic birds—that of violently beating the water with its wings without moving from the spot, followed by a vigorous shaking of the whole body, with the feathers ruffled, and, at the same time, covering itself with water. After repeating this several times with small intervals of rest, it will retire to an elevated place on shore, where it will remain with outspread wings until dry.

The flight of these birds is rapid and lasting; but they are as heavy and awkward when on land as they are nimble and active in the water. Their nature being unsuspicious and trustful, they can be easily approached, particularly when resting after their fishing exertions.

The Cormorant is widely diffused both in the Old and New World. It is a migratory bird, but is seen on our coast at all seasons. It breeds among rocks on the coast, selecting crags and inaccessible places, which sometimes are covered with their nests: these are composed of sticks and sea-weed, in which the female deposits her eggs, generally three in number, and which are of a whitish colour, weighing about two ounces.

In Egypt four species of Cormorants are known. The Great Cormorant (Carbo cormoranus) is the size of a Goose; this species is often domesticated, and is frequently met with in France.

English Synonyms.—Green Cormorant: McGillivray, Morris, Selby. Shag: Montagu, Willoughby, McGillivray, Latham, Flemming. Crested Cormorant: Morris. Crested Shag: Montagu, Selby, Jenyns.

Latin Synonyms.—Pelicanus graculus: Linn., Latham, Montagu, Bewick.Phalacrocorax graculus: Cuvier, Brisson, Rennies, Montagu, McGillivray, Stephens, Flemming.Phalacrocorax cristatus: Meyer, Temminck.

French Synonyms.—Cormoran Larcup: Temminck.Petit Cormoran, orNigaud: Buffon.Cormoran Nigaud: Figuier.

Local Synonyms.—Black Cormorant, Crested Cormorant, Shag, Scart, Scarer, Green Scout, and the Booby Cormorant.

This species is in weight about four pounds; the bill is dusky, and about four inches in length; a bare yellow skin is situated along the sides of the mouth and chin, the latter speckled with black. The whole bird appears black at a little distance, but on nearer examination, the head, neck, breast, and rump are of a glossy green. The feathers of the upper part of the back, scapulars, and wing coverts are pointed, and beautifully glossed with purple, violet, and green, each feather being edged with a velvety black; the under part of the body is less glossed with green; the legs are dusky black; middle claw serrated.

The female weighs over three pounds; the upper part of her body is dark, not so densely glossed as in the male; but the margin of the feathers of the scapulars and wing coverts is black, the under part dusky, with a mixture of grey.

Such is Colonel Montagu's description of a pair shot from the nest, but they vary in plumage and colour. In habit the Shag is strictly a salt-water bird, never visiting fresh water, breeding on our rocky coasts, where it builds a nest of stick and sea-weed. They resort to the maritime caves of the Hebrides in such vast numbers that they literally cover the sea to a considerable extent when on their passage from the caves of Liuir and Toehead to their fishing-grounds in the sound. Mr. McGillivray has counted a hundred and five in one flock. This picture Mr. McGillivray makes the text for one of his most delightful descriptions:—

"There is a large cave," he says, "on the west coast of Harris, celebrated for the number of Shags which reside on it, and so lofty that a boat can enter it to a considerable distance with lowering themasts. When we appear off the mouth of the cave a considerable number appear conspicuously perched on the little shelving rocks and projections, their dusky figures strongly relieved by the whitened surface of the rocks. Some of them fly overhead as we approach, but more drop into the water like a stone. On looking down we see them rapidly winding their way under the boat, swimming with outspread wings, and not at all in the manner represented by some writers, who say that it propels itself entirely under water by the feet and tail. Glancing aloft, we see many Black Guillemots in the clefts; and above them is the eyrie of the White-tailed Eagle. But our business is with the Shags, which are now seen writhing their long necks as they gaze upon us. Presently a shot is fired, and another; the dead birds drop on the water, the living plunge headlong into it, many advance on the wing, but, being frightened by the upraised oars, dart into the water.

"Advancing a little, we find that many still remain on the rocks; of these we shoot some more. Presently some of those which had escaped return, and perch; and we continue shooting until we have obtained as many as we desire. After all the uproar we have created, several still remain standing near their nests, loath to quit them. Although most of the nests are out of reach, some are accessible. We find them generally bulky, sometimes very scanty, formed of fuci, twigs, heath, and grass rudely put together, made flat, or with a shallow cavity, containing two, frequently three, sometimes four eggs, never more."

This bird has black plumage, as we have seen, is smaller than the one preceding, and inhabits the Arctic and Antarctic regions. A bird nearly resembling this (Phalacrocorax Desmarestii) is described by Temminck and figured by Gould, a species which has been observed in Corsica, and is of a blackish green. Montagu satisfied himself that the Crested Cormorant was only a seasonal variety of the Common Cormorant; and probably others of the species described, if carefully examined, would prove to be the same. McGillivray is of opinion, however, if Mr. Gould's figure is correct, the species must be distinct.

A comprehensive group of aquatic birds presenting a uniformity of structure quite apparent in the skeleton, and especially in the digestive organs, of which the Pelican is the type. They are mostly birds of large size, but of slender, elongated body, long neck, and head generally of moderate size. The bill is long, sometimes slender, at other times rather stout and straight; the upper mandible with the ridge separated by grooves, and terminated in a narrow, decurved, and pointed nail, or claw; the lower mandible elastic and extensible. The plumage is soft and blending, on the back and wings compact and imbricated; wings long, tail of moderate length and narrow.

The habits of the group vary considerably. Cormorants pursue their prey much in the same manner as Mergansers and Loons; the Anhingas are strictly territorial; the Pelicans combine the habits of both. The Gannets fly about in quest of food, plunging upon it from on high. The Frigate Birds range over the seas with unrivalled power of flight, and the Tropic Birds resemble in progression the Terns. The family comprises—

1. Pelicans.2. Cormorants.3. Gannets.4. Phaetons.5. Anhingas.

The Pelican (Fig. 105) has the bill long, straight, rather broad, and very much depressed; upper mandible flattened, terminating in a hooked tip much bent and compressed; lower mandible formed of two bony branches united at the point, from which a membranous naked skin is suspended, forming a purse, which can be distended into a voluminous bag. The Pelicans are large, heavy aquatic birds, with great extent of wing, and are excellent swimmers; their haunts are estuaries, the sea-coast, and the banks of rivers, lakes, and marshes. In its habitat, whenever a fish betrays its presence by leaping or flashing its glittering scales in the sun, the Pelican will be seen sailing towards it.

This bird has an appetite so insatiable, and a stomach so capacious,that, in one day's fishing, it devours as much fish as would satisfy six men. The Egyptians have nicknamed it the "River Camel," because it can imbibe at once more than twenty pints of water. Certainly it only makes two meals a day; but, oh! what meals they are!

Fig. 105.—The Crested Pelican (P. onocrotalus, var.Orientalis, Linn.).

Pelicans often travel in considerable flocks, visiting the mouths of rivers or favourite retreats on the sea-coast. When they have made choice of a suitable place, they arrange themselves in a wide circle, and begin to beat the water with extended wing, so as to drive the fish before them, gradually diminishing the circle as they approach the shore or some inlet on the coast. In this manner they get all the fish together into a small space, when the common feast begins. After gorging themselves they retire to the shore, where the processes of digestion follow. Some rest with the neck over the back; others busily dress and smooth their plumage, waiting patiently until returning appetite invites all to fresh exertions. When thus quiescent, occasionally one of these birds empties his well-lined pouch, and spreads in front of him all the fish that it contains, in order to feed upon them at leisure.

This guttural pouch, which plays so important a part in the Pelican's life, is composed of two skins, the outer one being a prolongation of the skin of the neck; the inner one is contiguous to the coating of the œsophagus. The tongue is small: a delicate gizzard forms one large sac with the other stomachs.

In spite of its great size, the Pelican flies easily and to considerable distances. It is no diver, but will occasionally dash down on fish from a considerable height, and with such velocity that it becomes submerged; but its buoyancy instantly brings it to the surface again. It perches on trees, but seems to prefer rocks. When it builds a nest, it is generally formed of coarse reedy grass, lined with softer material, placed in the cleft of dry rocks near the water. Here the female deposits two, three, four, sometimes five white eggs, but most frequently only two. They are occasionally satisfied with placing their eggs in an indentation in the ground which they have roughly lined with blades of grass.

After an incubation lasting from forty to forty-five days, the young ones, covered with a greyish down, are hatched. The female feeds them: she presses the hooked red point of the mandible against her breast, which causes her to disgorge the fish it contains into the bills of the young ones, the male performing the same operation on himself for the benefit of his partner. This is probably the fact that has given origin to the absurd fable that the female Pelican is in the habit of piercing her breast in order to nourish her young with her maternal blood. The young birds are easily tamed. It is even asserted that they are susceptible of education, and that, like the young Cormorants, they can be taught to fish for their masters.

The Pelican is more common in tropical regions than in temperate climates. They are very numerous in Africa, Siam, Madagascar, the Sunda Isles, the Philippines, Manilla, and in the Western Hemisphere they abound from the Antilles to the northern temperate part of the South American continent. The true Pelicans are large birds with powerful wings, and are excellent swimmers. The pouch has extraordinary elasticity, and is capable of containing a number of fish either for its own consumption or the nourishment of its young. It haunts theneighbourhood of rivers and lakes and the sea-coast, being rarely seen more than twenty leagues from the land. Levaillant describes one of those wonderful ornithological scenes which only occur in uninhabited regions. At the entrance of Saldanha Bay, on the south-west coast of Africa, after wading through the surf and clambering up the rocks, "all of a sudden there arose from the surface of the Island of Dassen-Eyland an impenetrable cloud, which formed, at the distance of forty feet above our heads, an immense canopy, composed of birds of almost every kind of water-fowl—Cormorants, Sea Gulls, Sea Swallows, Pelicans, and I believe the whole winged tribes of this part of Africa were here assembled. Their voices, harsh and discordant, formed a noise so unmusical that I was every moment compelled to cover my head in order to relieve my ears. The alarm we created was so much the more general, inasmuch as the birds disturbed were chiefly sitting females. They had nests, eggs, and young to defend." In this scene the Pelican, from its peculiar appearance, was of course a prominent object. The best-known species are—1, the White Pelican; 2, the Crested Pelican; 3, the Brown Pelican; and 4, the Spectacled Pelican.

English Synonym.—White Pelican.

Latin Synonyms.—Pelicanus onocrotalus: Linn., Temminck, Selby.P. minor: Ruppell.

French Synonym.—Pélican Blanc: Temminck.

The White Pelican (Pelicanus onocrotalus) is as large as a Swan. Its bill is about fifteen inches in length. Its plumage is white, with a slightly rosy tint, which is brightest in the breeding season; the pinnaries and spurious wings are black; the crest and a few feathers on the neck yellowish.

This species received from the ancients the name ofOnocrotalus, because they fancied that they discovered a resemblance in its cry to the braying of an ass. It is very common on the lakes and rivers of Hungary and Southern Russia, as well as on the banks of the Danube. If it is seen in France, it is purely accidental, as it is a rare visitor. A wild rocky shore, where it can look down onthe sea, is the favourite haunt of the Pelican; but it is not uncommon for it to perch on trees. The nest is formed of coarse reedy grass, with a lining of finer quality; it is generally made on the ground, and is about eighteen inches in diameter, in which it lays four, sometimes five, white eggs, but more frequently two, slightly oblong, and alike at both ends. Fish forms its principal food, which it captures chiefly in shallow inlets; for it is no diver, although on the wing it dashes upon a fish occasionally from a great height, and that with such velocity that it submerges itself, but its buoyancy brings it immediately to the surface. Occasionally it flies very high, but it generally just poises itself over the water. Notwithstanding its webbed feet, it often perches on trees—a habit which Sonnerat describes as peculiar to the female in the evening, after having fed and protected her young during the day.

Synonyms.—Pelicanus crispus: Bonaparte, Temminck, Bruck. Pelican: English authors.P. onocrotalus(var.Orientalis): Linn, Pallas, Dalmatian.Riesen-pelikan: German authors.

The Crested Pelican, in common with the White Pelican, inhabits the south-east of Europe and Africa, and is also found in Hungary, Dalmatia, Greece, the Crimea, and the Ionian Islands, as well as in Algeria, and, according to some authors, it is frequently met with in China.

It has white plumage, with the exception that the ends of the feathers of the back and wings are black. The feathers of the head and upper part of the neck are twisted up so as to form a tolerably large tuft or crest: hence the name it bears. Its habitat is principally the marshes round the Black Sea, and the isles adjacent to the mouth of the Danube.

Of their habits, travellers in these regions give very interesting descriptions. Count Mükle states that they are plentiful on the lakes of Missolonghi, and in the marshy grounds near Thermopylæ. In situations incredibly difficult of access, especially on floating islands, scarcely over the water-line, they place their nests thickly together, supported among reeds and rushes. The vicinity of these congregated nests is rendered indescribably offensive by thefoul fish they have dropped about, and the disagreeable white dung with which all the neighbourhood is covered.

"Time was," says Mr. W. H. Simpson, "and that not so long ago, whenPelicanus crispuslived in hundreds all the year round, from the rocky promontory of Kourtzalari, hard by the mouth of the Acheloüs, on the western extremity of the lagoon, near the island of Ætolico, up the northern arm, and on the east along the great mud flats which mark the limits of the present delta of Phidaris. Nowadays, however, a solitary individual may be seen fishing here and there throughout the vicinity; the remnant have betaken themselves to the islands which divide the Gulf of Procopanisto from that of Ætolico. Here, towards the end of February last, the community constituted a group of seven nests—a sad falling off from the year 1838, when thirty-four nests were grouped upon a neighbouring islet. As we approached the spot in a boat the Pelicans left their nests, and taking to the water, sailed away like a fleet of stately ships, leaving their preconcerted nursery in possession of the invader. The boat grounded in two or three feet of mud, and when the party had floundered through this, the seven nests were found to be empty. A fisherman had plundered them that morning, taking from each nest one egg, which we afterwards recovered. The nests were constructed in a great measure of the old reed palings used by the natives for enclosing fish, mixed with such pieces of the vegetation of the islet as were suitable for the purpose. The seven nests were contiguous, and disposed in the shape of an irregular cross, the navel of the cross, which was the tallest nest, being about thirty inches high, the two next in line being about two feet, and the two forming the arms being a few inches lower, the two extremes at either end being about fourteen inches from the ground.... The eggs are chalky, like others of the Pelicanidæ, very rough in texture, and some of them streaked with blood."—("Ibis," vii. p. 395.)

The Brown Pelican is an American species, smaller than the preceding, and is described at some length by Nuttall. It has the head and the neck variegated with white and ash-colour; all therest of the plumage of a brownish grey, with whitish marks on the back; the pouch is of an ashy blue, striped with a reddish hue. It is found in the Larger Antilles, on the coasts of Peru, in Bengal, and in South Carolina.

The Spectacled Pelican, which is only found in southern climates, is thus named from the naked skin which surrounds the eye, reminding one of spectacles by its more or less circular form. Its plumage, like that of its congeners, is white.

"Notwithstanding the dissimilarity of the bill," says Mr. Vigors (Linn. Trans., vol. xiv.), "the Sterna and Rhynchops most intimately accord in habits and external characters. The Gull-billed Tern of Colonel Montagu conducts us from these genera to the groups which compose the Linnæan genusLarus—now divided into two genera,LestrisandLarus. From this group we are led to the generaDiomedeæandHaladroma, by the absence of the hind toe, by means of the speciesLarus tridactylus(Latham), where, though the hind toe is not absolutely different, as might be inferred from its name, there appears but the rudiment of one. The last-mentioned genus,Haladroma, originally belonged toProcellaria, and was separated from it by its tridactyle foot. Even in this character, however, it forms a connection fromLarusto the groups that compose the genuineProcellaria, all of which are distinguished by the singular peculiarity of having no true hind toe, but only a nail adhering to the tarsus in its place. We thus arrive at the Petrels, separated into groups of theProcellaria(Anet),Pachyptila(Ilf.),Puffucus(Ray)."

TheGrands Voiliers, or Long-winged Birds, are thus named from their powerful and enduring faculty of flight. Mariners meet with them everywhere, and easily recognise them by their long and pointed wings, forked tails, and short legs. In this order the back toe is unconnected with the others, or is wanting, and the membrane which unites the others much notched; their billsare sharp and pointed, and without indentations. They pass their lives at a great distance from land, and do not approach the shore except for breeding purposes. To this sub-order belong the Sea Swallows (Sterna), Scissors-bills or Skimmers (Rynchops), the Sea Gulls (Laridæ), the Labbes (Stercoraria), the Petrels (Procellaria), Albatross (Diomedea).

English Synonyms.—Common Tern: Selby, McGillivray, Morris. Greater Tern: Montagu, Bewick, Pennant. Local names: Sea Swallow, Gull Teaser, Tarney, Tarrock, Kippock, Scraye.

Latin Synonyms.—Sterna hirundo: Pennant, Montagu, Bewick, Flemming, Selby, Jenyns, Gould, Yarrell, Latham.Sterna major: Brisson.Hirundo marina: Ray, Willoughby.

There are six species of Sterna, properly so called, described by British naturalists; and six others, according to McGillivray, nearly resembling them in form, colour, and habit. The true Sterna has the bill straight, slender, compressed, and tapering; it is about the length of the head, with the edge sharp, and the tip elongated and pointed; the upper mandible armate; legs short, slender; anterior toes small; membrane emarginate; wings long and pointed; tail forked. These birds are remarkable for their buoyant, graceful, easy flight, and the soft, loose texture of their plumage. Their prevailing colours are a pale bluish grey or black, and white.

The Tern, or Sea Swallow, as it is commonly called, on account of its long pointed wings and forked tail, appears to be, like the Swallow properly so called, a perfect disregarder of rest. They may be seen soaring in the air at a very great height, and then suddenly darting down upon their prey, which their piercing sight has enabled them to descry in the water. Often, too, they may be noticed skimming over the surface of the waves with astonishing rapidity, and seizing in their flight any fish which is imprudent enough to show itself. Their flight over the sea seems incessant, and it is rarely they are seen swimming. When they need rest, they seek some solitary, isolated rock in the ocean. They congregate in flocks more or less numerous, and they manifest so much attachment for individuals of their own species, that, when one of them is wounded by the sportsman'sgun, the others surround it, full of grief and sympathy, nor will they leave it until all hope of saving its life is at an end.

These birds in their flight give utterance to shrill and piercing calls, which, when produced by numbers together, cause a deafening uproar in the sky. These calls are raised with increased power when they are about to undertake some longer flight than usual. But the time, above all others, when their noise is most discordant and shrill is the breeding season. "On going up to one of their breeding-places," says McGillivray, "which may always be discovered from a distance, as some of the birds will be seen hovering over it, one is sure to be met by several of them, which hasten to remonstrate with the intruder by harsh cries and threatened blows. As you draw nearer, more of them leave their nests; and at length they are all on the wing, wheeling and bounding—now high and now low—at times coming quite close, and increasing their cries, which resemble the syllables 'cree-cree-cree-ae.'"

Fig. 106.—The Tern (Sterna hirundo, Linn.).

Like the Land Swallows, these sea-birds arrive on our coasts in the spring. They disperse themselves over our lakes and large ponds, where they feed on any animal substances they meet with—either fresh or putrefied—fish, mollusks, or insects. Montagu says they are found in great abundance on the Sussex and Kentishcoasts, particularly about Winchelsea, and in the Romney marshes towards Dungeness. Mr. Selby found them breeding in the Solway and in the Firth of Clyde. McGillivray met with them in great numbers in South Uist and Long Island; and his correspondents, Messrs. Bailie and Heddle, noted their annual arrival in the Orkneys in May. "They arrive in straggling flocks in the beginning of May," says McGillivray, "and soon betake themselves to their breeding-places, which are sandy tracts, gravelly or pebbly ridges, rocky ground, sometimes low, shelving rocks on the sea-shore; their nests being bits of grass or fragments of sea-weed, placed in a mere depression. In stormy weather they fly little, but shelter themselves by resting on the shore. They go to roost very late in the evening; long after sunset, they are still engaged in seeking their sustenance."

Terns always assemble in flocks on the sea-coast, on the margins of lakes, in marshes, or wooded spots near the mouths of rivers, at their breeding-time. Their nests are placed so near to one another, that the hens sitting actually come in contact. They lay their eggs, to the number of two or three, which hatch in twenty days. These eggs are esteemed as a very delicate viand: in the United States a considerable trade is carried on in them.

The Sea Swallow is found in all the regions both of the Old and New World, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific.

The Tern (Sterna hirundo) is very common in France, on the shores of the Atlantic, and in the Mediterranean.

English Synonyms.—Lesser Tern: Montagu, Selby. Lesser Sea Swallow, Little Tern: McGillivray, Flemming.

Latin Synonym.—Sterna minuta: Latham, Flemming, Selby, McGillivray, Morris, Jenyns, Temminck.

French Synonyms.—La Sterne Petite: Figuier.La Petite Hirondelle de Mer: Temminck.

This smallest of the Terns has many habits in common with theSterna hirundo. "In the elegance of its buoyant flight," says McGillivray, "as it skims over the water or shoots along its way to and from its breeding-place, the tiny creature is an object ofadmiration to every lover of nature. You may see a pair coming up from a distance, flying at the height of a few yards over the waves, their long wings winnowing the air and impelling them on by starts as they wind their way in undulating and graceful movements. Suddenly their flight is arrested over a large pool left on the sands by the retreating tide. With quick beats of their wings they hover almost stationary over the water, with downward-pointed bills, intently searching for their prey beneath. One drops with upraised wings, dips for a moment, and rises with a small fish in its bill; the other is equally successful. Onward they proceed, now and then emitting their shrill cry. Far ahead is seen a flock engaged in picking up their prey, and onward the stragglers speed to join their kindred."

The Little Tern has the bill slightly longer than the head, and, like the Common Tern, slender, nearly straight, much compressed, tapering, and acute; the eyes and feet small; plumage soft and blended; wings long, narrow, and pointed; tail long and deeply forked; upper part of the head and nape black; neck, back, and wings light greyish blue; hind part of the back and tail white; length to the end of the tail about ten inches; wings twenty-one inches.

This species reaches our shores in the beginning of May, and settles along the whole eastern and southern coast, from the Land's End to the Orkneys, but is rare on the west coast. The Firth of Forth, the sands of Barry, near Dundee, a place at the mouth of the Don, and another at the Ythan, are noted as their haunts, as are the sands of Strathbeg Loch, and the sands between Burghead and the mouth of the Findhorn. It is also abundant on the sea-coasts of Holland and France, where it feeds on fish-spawn and small winged insects.

The Noddy (Sterna stolida), which frequents rivers and the borders of lakes, especially marshes, makes its nest among the reeds and water-lily leaves: this is the species most plentiful in America. The Silver-winged Tern (Sterna leucoptera) inhabits the bays and gulfs of the Mediterranean, and is only an accidental visitor to the north of France. The Arctic Tern (Sterna arctica) is a native of the Arctic Circle, and regularly visits the sea-coast of the north of France. We may also mention the Whiskeredor Marsh Tern (Sterna leucupareia), the Gull-billed Tern (Sterna anglica), the Roseate Tern (Sterna Dougalli), the Sandwich Tern (Sterna cautiaca), and the Tschegruna, or Caspian Tern (Sterna caspica), all of which either breed upon the British coast, or are frequent visitors there, although they rarely reach France.

Fig. 107.—The Black Scissors-bill (Rynchops nigra).

The Scissors-bills have received their name from the conformation of their beaks, which are flattened laterally into two laminæ fitting one on the other, forming two mandibles compressed into cutting blades, the upper being one-third shorter than the lower. In order to pick up the shrimps and small fishes on which they feed, these birds are obliged to skim the surface of the water, dipping the lower mandible of their bill, the upper mandible being kept open and clear of the water till aquatic insects or other small fry have entered into the lower portion of it.25The singular form of their bills is also of service to them in opening such bivalve shell-fish as come in their way. They frequently watch these mollusks, and when they notice that the shell of the latteris slightly open, they plunge the lower mandible of their long bill into it; they then break the ligament of the shell by beating it against the rock. The tenement being thus destroyed, there is no obstacle to their devouring the inhabitant.

The only remarkable species of this bird is the Black Scissors-bill (Rynchops nigra), frequently called the Cut-water. It is about the size of a Pigeon; its prevailing colour is white, top of the head and shoulders black, with a white band on the wings. These birds are very numerous in the West Indian seas. They fly with a slow motion, and, like the Gulls and other sea-birds, they occasionally form such dense flocks that the sky is actually darkened for the space of a league.

Gulls and their congeners include the well-known shore-birds generally called Gulls, more especially the Skuas (Lestris), Gulls (Larus), and Mews (Gavia). They are characterised by a light body, more or less compact; neck of moderate length; head ovate; bill shorter than the head, straight, compressed; convex ridge on upper mandible, nasal groove long; lower mandible with the angle long and narrow; mouth moderate; tongue fleshy; eyes small; legs generally short; tibia bare; tarsus short, compressed; hind toe small; middle toe longest; fore toe moderate in length and slender; connecting membrane full, margins only concave; claws generally small, arcuate, acute, and more or less compressed.

These birds inhabit the sea-shore, along which they wander in search of food; the larger species preying on fish, crustacea and mollusca, and the carcasses of cetacea and other marine mammalia cast up by the sea. They all pursue shoals of fish in the open sea, often to great distances from land. Their plumage is full, soft, close, elastic, and well blended on the back and wings; wings long, broad, and pointed; the tail, of twelve feathers, rounded and forked.

The Sea Mews (Gavia) are connected with the Terns, yet still have some characteristics of the Gulls. However, they are of smaller size than the latter, have more slender forms, and their feet and bills are comparatively feebler. We shalldescribe the Mews and Gulls under one head, as they have the same generic characteristics, the only difference between them being that of size. The name of Gull applies to those species which are at least as large as Ducks; that of Mew to those which are smaller.

The Gull (Larus) and the Mew are found in every country, on every coast, out at sea, and sometimes even on fresh waters, lakes, and rivers. These birds literally swarm on some coasts, where they devour every kind of food they meet with. Fish, either fresh or stale; flesh, either fresh or decomposed; worms; shell-fish—all are alike acceptable. If these birds happen to notice the carcass of any animal, either floating on the sea or cast up on the shore, it soon becomes their prey, and is speedily devoured by these "Sea Vultures," as Buffon calls them. Should one of them discover the remains of a dead whale, or other large oceanic mammalia, it apprises the rest of the flock, and immediately they all pour down upon their booty, uttering the most discordant cries. They gorge themselves up to their very throats; but their stomachs soon digest the rapidly-decomposing animal diet. They may also be observed in search of other prey, skimming over the surface of the water, their keen eyes anxiously scanning far and near for their most favourite food, young fish.

During the breeding season they visit islands where they are sure to find thousands of eggs as well as young birds. In spite of the piteous shrieks of the parents and the plaintive cries of the young, the whole colony is sacrificed to their gluttony; the eggs are sucked, and the scarcely-hatched young ones are devoured. But, as they are always cowards, whenever these sea-vagabonds notice the approach of a bird more warlike than themselves, although, perhaps, much smaller, their only endeavour is to hide themselves, or depart with all the celerity which their long wings can give them. The mere sight of a Labbe (Stercoraria) is quite sufficient to make them disgorge their food. These birds, which are essentially water scavengers, are frequently very much in want of food, especially during stormy weather. Nature in her goodness, however, has well enabled them to endure hunger.

Sea Gulls and Sea Mews are found everywhere, but they are most numerous on the flat and low sea-shores of the North, wherethe dead bodies of whales and other large fish furnish them with abundant food. They prefer building their nests on desert islands in the Polar seas, where they are safe from man's intrusion. They lay two or three eggs in a hole scratched in the sand, or in the cleft of a rock.

These birds are easily tamed, and soon take to domestic habits; but their flesh, which is hard and tough as leather, is unfit for human food. In order to render them eatable in cases of emergency, the sailors, after having skinned them, hang them up by their feet, and leave them exposed to the evening dew for two or three nights. By this means a little of the disagreeable smell passed by their carcass is got rid of.

Fig. 108.—Large White-winged Gull (Larus glaucus, Yarrell).

The most remarkable species of the Sea Gull are the following:—

The Large White-winged Gull,Larus glaucus(Fig. 108), is all white except its back, which is of a light bluish grey. It is most frequently found towards the east of Europe, and is rare on the Atlantic coasts.

The Great Black-backed Gull,Larus marinus(Fig. 109), is of a pure white, with a black back. It is very common in northern regions, and habitually visits the shores of the Atlantic to the north of France.

The Herring Gull (Larus argentatus, Yarrell), is white, with ablue back. It is seen throughout the year on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.

The only species of Sea Mew which it is necessary for us to describe are:—

The White Sea Mew, or Senator (Larus eburneus),26which is found but incidentally in the temperate regions of Europe. It is very common in Greenland and Baffin's Bay. Its plumage is entirely white, tinted with pink underneath; it has black feet and a bluish bill.

The Brown-masked Sea Mew (Larus capistratus)27has the top of its head and throat of a light brown colour; the inside of the wings are light grey; the rest of its body is white; and its bill and tarsi are of a reddish-brown colour. This species is common in England.

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