Vultures.

Fig. 298.—Common Buzzards (Buteo vulgaris).

The principal species are the Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris),Fig. 298, which is found all over Europe—it was until lately very common in England; the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), a native of Eastern Europe—this bird is partial to bees, wasps, and their larvæ, of which its food principally consists—it will also eat grain, and, in a domestic state, fruit; and the Rough-legged Buzzard (Archibuteo lagopus), so called on account of the feathers which cover its tarsi down to the toes: it is a native of Europe, North Africa, Asia, and America. Ptarmigans are their principal food, and cold climates their favourite habitat.

The birds which belong to theHarriergenus are characterised by long and—slender tarsi, covered with feathers on the upper portion only, and also by a sort of collar formed of closely-planted feathers, which surrounds the neck and extends on each side to the ears. Marshy plains, and woods situated in the vicinity of rivers, are their most frequent resorts. They build their nests on the ground, or close to it, in the brushwood, and in this respect differ from most of the Falcon family. When searching for theirprey they skim over the ground, and always seize it suddenly, as if by surprise: if the unfortunate is lucky enough to avoid the Harrier's onset it is safe from pursuit. In Europe the best-known species of this family are the Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) and the Moor Harrier (Circus æruginosus),Fig. 299.

Fig. 299.—Moor Harrier (Circus æruginosus).

The former bird is about seventeen inches high; it inhabits all the countries of Europe, and feeds on serpents, rodents, and frogs. When it succeeds in making its way into pigeon-houses or poultry-yards it commits great havoc.

The Moor Harrier feeds principally on game, to which it is extremely destructive. Game preservers consequently are their bitterest enemies. Their flight is not swift except when pouncing on their prey, when it is possessed of great certainty and velocity.

The other species we will mention are the Frog-eating Harrier (Circus ranivorus), which is a native of South Africa, where it feeds principally on frogs and fish; the Pale-chested Harrier and Jardine's Harrier (C. SwainsoniiandC. Jardinii); and the Ash-coloured Harrier (C. cinerescens), which is met with in the extreme south of America. The latter has great powers offlight, and is always in motion, never halting except to seize its prey; it is very wild, and can only be approached when feeding.

TheCaracaras(Polyborus, Vieillot) are a race of birds which form a link between the Falcon and the Vulture families. They have, like the latter, the projecting crop, goggle eyes; head partly bare of feathers, toes long, especially the middle one, and the claws but slightly crooked. They show a decided taste for putrid carrion. They do not, however, feed exclusively on it, for when opportunity offers they will capture mammals, young birds, reptiles, mollusks, grasshoppers, and even worms. These birds are essentially pedestrians; the slight curvation of their claws renders this easy, and it is not an unfrequent thing to see them walk at a slow pace for considerable distances.

Their name is derived from the cry which they utter. They are peculiar to South America, in which they are found in every latitude, and at all altitudes. They present, however, differences according to the region which they inhabit. Each species fixes itself in a zone, which becomes its special place of habitation. Thus the Brazilian Caracara (Fig. 300) is met with everywhere, from the coldest districts to the hottest countries, but only at a slight altitude, and in company with the Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango), whilst the summits of the Andes are inhabited by the Long-winged Caracara (M. megalopterus); and the Chimachima Caracara (M. chimachima) inhabits the burning plains between the tropics.

The Caracaras, especially the common species and the Chimango, are distinguished from the other Falconides by an excessive amount of sociability: everywhere they seek out the vicinity of man. But we should be labouring under a mistake if we supposed that affection had any share in this alliance; egotism and self-interest are the motives which impel them to act thus. It is to feed at his expense—to devour the fragments of his meals, kill his Domestic Fowls, or take possession of the pieces of meat which are hung in the sun to dry. This bird, however, is useful, for it most efficiently performs the duties of scavengers.

The Caracara will craftily follow the sportsman, and steal away game that is not quickly bagged. It also accompanies travellers across the vast pampas to prey on the carcasses of the worn-outbeasts of burden. It will even attack horses and mules which are galled by the pack-saddle, fastening greedily on their wounds, and would actually devour them alive if the quadrupeds had not the sagacity to dislodge them by rolling on the ground. It will also take up its abode near flocks of sheep, and if it can evade the watchfulness of the shepherd, will destroy the newly-born lamb.

Fig. 300.—The Brazilian Caracaras (Polyborus brasiliensis).

Having confidence in its own strength, the Caracara frequently pursues other birds, especially Vultures and Gulls, which it forces to disgorge their food. It will even engage in sanguinary conflicts with its own species for the possession of prey. Contrary to the habit of most birds in a state of freedom, it remains constantly paired, without, however, having more than one or two broods a year. The Caracara lays two eggs; the nest is generally placed on the ground among brushwood.

Besides the four species we have mentioned there is also theCaracara funebris, thus named on account of its plumage,which is almost entirely of a black hue. This bird is still more of a plunderer than the preceding species, and is a native of the shores of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Isles, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, &c.

The Vultures (Vulturidæ) form a well-marked genus, which is readily distinguished from the Falcons by the following characteristics:—A beak almost entirely straight, and curved only at its extremity; the head and neck generally devoid of feathers; small and staring eyes; head small; tarsi generally bare; toes short and slightly curved; weak claws; and wings very long. They are also distinguished from holding themselves in a horizontal position, whether walking or at rest; whereas the Falcons stand erect, and present a noble bearing. Vultures probably adopt their attitude on account of the length of their wings, which even in a stooping position sweep the ground, and would drag much more but for this precaution. Lastly, they are specially characterised by their partiality for putrefied flesh, which forms their almost exclusive nutriment, as it is only occasionally they attack living prey.

When a Vulture has glutted itself, its crop, swelled by the food which it has devoured, forms a voluminous projection in front of the neck; a fetid humour oozes from its nostrils, and it remains sunk in a state of stupid torpor until the food is digested.

They fly heavily, but mount aloft to great altitudes. Their powers of vision are extraordinary. Should a carcass be left on the plain, they immediately see it and drop down, turning over and over in their hurry to partake of the anticipated banquet. It has been supposed by some that their olfactory organs are so acute as to smell, at great distances, the emanations which escape from bodies in a state of decomposition, and thus to account for their prompt arrival. Latterly, however, certain observers have opposed this theory: according to their ideas the Vulture tribe owe this wonderful facility to their sight, not to scent. This reason however, has not as yet been rendered altogether clear. We therefore think it prudent to abstain from giving an absolute judgment on the point, and will content ourselves by admittingthat both sight and smell concur in producing the result: these two senses may either exercise an equal power, or one of them may predominate over the other.

The Vulture family exhale a tainted odour, which is owing to the peculiar nature of their nutriment; it is, therefore, impossible for their flesh to be in any way utilised as food. This family comprises four principal genera: the Griffons (Gypaëtos, Storr), theSarcoramphi(Duméril), theCathartes(Cuv.;Gallinazos, Vieill.), and the Common Vultures (Percnopterus, Cuv.;Neophron, Sav.).

TheGriffons, or Vulture Eagles (Vultur fulvus, Bennett), form, as their name indicates, an intermediate genus between the Eagles and the Vultures. Although they have small and goggle eyes, not very strong talons, and a projecting crop during the digestion of their meals, they are allied to the Eagles in virtue of their feathered tarsi, as well as by their head and neck; they also show a preference for living prey, which they attack with readiness. We will complete their portrait by stating that they have a very strong beak, enlarged towards the point.

The Bearded Griffon (Gypaëtus barbatus, Gould) is the celebrated Lämmergeyer, described by Buffon under the name of the Golden Vulture. It owes its name to a tuft of stiff hair which is under the beak: the loftiest mountains of Europe, Asia, and Africa are its habitat. Its aerie, which is of considerable dimensions, it builds amongst the most inaccessible rocks. On the old continent it is the largest of all the birds of prey, and sometimes reaches five feet in length. Its spread of wing generally measures nine or ten feet. Sometimes these limits are exceeded for one was killed during the French expedition to Egypt, in the presence of Monge and Bertholet, which measured upwards of fourteen feet.

The Griffon is endowed with wonderful strength of body and powers of flight. It is not, therefore, surprising that it attacks animals of considerable size, such as calves, lambs, deer, chamois, &c., and that it succeeds in overpowering them. Like the Eagle, it is reported to perpetrate the followingruse, one almost telling of reasoning powers. Waiting until its victim stands isolated on the edge of a precipice, it flies suddenly against thepoor creature, beats it with its wings, and forces it to fall over into the abyss below, where the Griffon descends to feed on the mangled carcass.

It has been asserted that it sometimes ventures to employ this manœuvre against the chamois-hunter, to make him lose his equilibrium in difficult passes. But in spite of all the wonderful stories told, it cannot be admitted that it is capable of carrying off lambs or children, for the weakness of its claws will not support a prey of weight; it is therefore obliged to rend its victims in pieces, and devour them where killed.

Although it cannotcarry offchildren, it is nevertheless true that it sometimes attacks them, as the two following facts will prove.

In 1819 two children were devoured by Griffons on the environs of Saxe-Gotha, which induced the Government to set a price on the heads of these birds. M. Crespon, in his "Ornithologie du Gard," relates the second fact:—

"For many years," says he, "I was in possession of a living Griffon which exhibited no very great courage towards some other large birds of prey which were kept with it, but it was different as regarded children, upon whom it attempted to spring, spreading out its wings as if it wished to strike them. Latterly, I let this bird run about free in my garden. Watching for a moment when no one saw it, it darted upon one of my nieces, two years and a half old, and, having seized her by the top of her shoulders, threw her down to the ground. Fortunately her cries warned us of the danger she was in, and I hastened to her rescue, and found that the child had suffered no other injury but fright and the tearing of her dress."

This bird shows great courage in defence of its offspring. Joseph Scherrer, a chamois-hunter, having first killed the male parent, climbed to an aerie to obtain the young, and had to engage in such a furious encounter with the female that it was with immense difficulty he saved himself by shooting the bird, from which he had received some severe wounds.

They live in pairs, and a number together are rarely seen. This is common to all animals which nature has endowed with a great amount of physical strength, for it is the weak only which practise the maxim, "Union is strength."

These birds were once far more plentiful in Europe than now. The reason of this is the great havoc which was made among them in the last century. Even at the present day pursuit of them is encouraged by the grant of a reward for each individual killed. The number of eggs they lay being limited (two), there is but little cause for surprise that the species is very sensibly diminishing.

In the birds which belong to theSarcoramphusfamily the base of the bill is furnished with a ring of long feathers, and the bill itself is surmounted with a thick and scalloped fleshy crest; from this peculiarity of organisation they derive their name, the signification ofSarcoramphusbeing "fleshy-billed."

This genus comprises but two species, the Condor (Sarcoramphus gryphus, Duméril) and the King Vulture (Sarcoramphus papa).

TheCondor, (from the wordCuntur, in the Peruvian language),Fig. 301, commonly called the Great Vulture of the Andes, is the most remarkable species of the Vulture family, both for its size and strength, and also for the vast extent of the stretch of its wings. Its plumage is of a dark blue, approaching to black; its collar, which occupies only the back and sides of the neck, is formed of a dazzling white down. Its crest, bevelled off at the edge, is cartilaginous in its nature, and of a bluish colour, and extends down the side of the neck in two fleshy strings. Lastly, the male has two fleshy appendages under the lower mandible, level with the collar. The wings are as long as the tail, their whole development being ten or twelve feet. The length of the bird from the point of the bill to the tip of the tail is on an average about four feet.

The chief habitat of the Condor is the western slope of the chain of the Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Chili; it frequents all the different altitudes, from the burning sands of the sea-coast to the ice-bound solitudes of perpetual snow. Humboldt and Bonpland, when exploring the Andes, repeatedly noticed Condors close round them when at a height of 15,700 feet above the level of the sea. D'Orbigny saw them as high up as the summit of Illimani, a height of 24,600 feet; and he likewise met with them on the coasts of Peru and Patagonia, seeking their food among the variousdébriswhich the waves had thrown upon the shore, proving that they can support variations of temperature which man would be unable to bear; in fact, at a height of 19,000 feet the air becomes so rarefied, and the cold so intense, that no human being would be able to exist for any length of time subject to their influence.

Fig. 301.—Condor (Vultur gryphus, Linn.).

The Condor passes the night at great elevations, perched on the cleft of a rock. As soon as the rising sun gilds the peaks of the mountains it raises its neck, hitherto buried between its shoulders, and shaking its wide wings, launches into space. The impetus of its own weight at first carries it downwards, but soon recoveringitself, it traverses the aërial space with majestic ease and grandeur. Almost imperceptible movements of the wings are sufficient to carry it in every direction; at one moment it is skimming over the surface of the ground, now it is up in the clouds, three thousand feet above. The Condor's power of vision is so great that it commands a view of the plain beneath from the greatest heights, and although it is no longer visible to the denizens of earth, their slightest movements cannot escape its piercing sight. When it catches view of prey, it partly folds its wings and descends upon it with the rapidity of lightning.

Although thus endowed with such powerful means of action, the Condor never attacks living animals unless they are helpless from youth, or enfeebled by disease. The stories of some travellers concerning the boldness of this bird are not founded on fact. It is inaccurate to state that the Condor will attack a man, as a child of ten years old, armed with a stick, has been known to put it to flight. It has been asserted that this bird will carry off lambs, young llamas, and even children, but this statement will not hold good when subjected to examination; for the Condor, like all the Vulture tribe, has short toes and non-retractile claws; it is, therefore, radically impossible for it to clutch and carry prey of any considerable weight.

It is, however, a fact beyond all question that the Condor is in the habit of prowling round flocks of sheep and cows; and, like the Caracara, will fall upon and devour newly-born animals. It accompanies the caravans which cross the plains of South America, and when an unfortunate pack animal, worn out with fatigue and privation, sinks down exhausted, totally unable to proceed on the journey, it becomes the prey of these winged banditti, which often commence their meal before life has left the body. M. de Castelnau, who has observed the Condor in the Andes, writes with regard to this subject:—

"Travellers who have sunk down upon the ground when utterly worn out with fatigue and suffering have been known to be attacked, tormented, and finally torn to pieces by these ferocious birds, which pluck strips of flesh off their victims, having first disabled them with blows of the wing. The unfortunates may resist for a few instants, but ere long a few blood-stained fragmentsare all that remain to announce to the passer-by the horrible death of those who preceded him on these dangerous paths."

The Condor possesses extraordinary tenacity of life. Humboldt relates that he found it impossible to strangle one, and that he was compelled to shoot it to put an end to its existence.

When the Condor is gorged with food it becomes very heavy, and can scarcely fly. The Indians, who are well aware of this peculiarity, take advantage of it to destroy the robber thus:—Carrion is placed in full view to entice the Condors. When the birds have thoroughly surfeited themselves they are hunted on horseback and entangled with lassoes, to be finally beaten to death with clubs.

Condors do not assemble in flocks except when devouring some animal of great size. The hen bird lays a couple of eggs in some crevice on the mountains or cliffs: nest-building they entirely disregard. The rearing of the young requires several months; the parent birds feed them by disgorging into their bills the food which they have stored in their crops. All the Vulture tribe do the same.

The Condor is tamed with difficulty; captivity seems only to increase its savage nature. Humboldt kept one at Quito for eight days, and he states that to approach it was always dangerous.

TheKing Vulture(Sarcoramphus papa),Fig. 302, is distinguished from the Condor by its collar, or ruff, which is of a slate colour, and surrounds the neck; also by its crest, of an orange hue, situated on the top of the bill. Instead of confining itself to arid and barren localities, it frequents plains and wooded hills, and nests in the hollows of old trees. Its habits are, however, very much the same as those of the Condor. It has been named the King of the Vultures because the other Vultures dread it, as it appropriates their prey. It is found in Mexico, Guiana, Peru, Brazil, and Paraguay, and occasionally in Florida, doubtless its most northern habitat. In this species the female has a crest as well as the male.

The genusCathartesof Illiger has a long and elongated bill; the head and neck bare; the nostrils oblong and piercedthrough; the wings obtuse, and reaching a little beyond the tail. There are three species: the Urubu (Vultur atratus) and the Turkey Buzzard (Vultur aura, Linn.), which are natives of America, and thePercnopterus(Vulture of Latham, Pharaoh's Hen of Bruce), peculiar to the Old World.

Fig. 302.—King Vultures (Sarcoramphus papa, Yarrell).

TheUrubu(Vultur atratus),Fig. 303, is the size of a small Turkey. Its plumage, of a brilliant black, gives it a somewhat dismal look, which is amply justified by its disgusting habits. This bird is of a sociable nature, and is always met with in numerous flocks. Like all birds which subsist on decaying matters, it is the constant guest of man, and accompanies him in all his wanderings through its habitat. In nearly all the large towns of South America it has acquired rights of citizenship, where itmay be seen almost in a domestic state, and multiplying under the protection of the laws. In Peru the inhabitants are prohibited from killing a Urubu under penalty of ten pounds. The same prohibition exists in Jamaica.

Fig. 303.—Urubus (Vultur atratus, Wils.).

This will easily be understood when it is explained that in these countries the Urubus perform the whole duty of cleansing the public streets from all kinds of filth and garbage, which, under the influence of an elevated temperature, would certainly infect the air, and engender continual epidemics. These birds, officiating as public scavengers, preserve the general health, and are therefore placed under the protection of the laws in spite of their unpleasant aspect and their unclean odour.

"The familiarity and tameness of the Urubus," says Alcide D'Orbigny, "are extreme. At the time of the distributions of meat made to the Indians in the province of Mojos I have known them snatch away the pieces as soon as the men had received them. Atone of these periodical distributions at Concepcion de Mojos, an Indian told me beforehand that I should see the most impudent bird possible, which was well known by the inhabitants by having lost a foot. It was not long, in fact, before we saw it come up, and it certainly showed all the qualities that had been attributed to it. I was told," says he, "that it was perfectly aware of the time of the distribution, which took place every fifteen days in each mission. And true enough, for happening to be present the following week at a similar performance at the mission of Magdalena, distant twenty leagues from Concepcion, I heard the Indians cry out, and soon recognised the lame Urubu just arrived. Thecurésof the two missions informed me that this bird never failed to be present on the fixed days at both places. This fact would seem to indicate a very high degree of instinct in the Urubu, combined with memory."

According as it inhabits country or town, the Urubu passes the night on branches of trees or roofs of houses. As soon as it is light in the morning it proceeds to search for food; and, describing wide circles in the air, explores the neighbourhood. If it perceives a carcass, it pitches on it, and, from the power with which its beak is furnished, soon effects an opening through the hide into the intestines. But its movements have been watched by others, and soon thousands arrive to take part in the putrid banquet. Contests and fights, wrangling and struggling, in which the strongest is always triumphant, then arise. In an incredibly short time the carcass is devoured, and nothing remains but a skeleton, the bones of which are cleaned as thoroughly as if done by an anatomist. The Urubus afterwards perch in the neighbourhood, and with their necks drawn back between their shoulders, and their wings extended, rapidly digest their food. The Urubus, like most of the Vulture family, spread their wings out for hours, although in a state of repose. The cause of this habit is that the attitude permits them to exhale from their bodies a kind of greasy perspiration.

In spite of the services which this bird renders to man, it is still regarded with the greatest repugnance. Nevertheless, D'Orbigny states that he has seen some completely tamed, and that they appeared susceptible of affection. This naturalist alsorelates that a creole had one of these birds, which he had reared, and that it accompanied its master wherever he went. At one time, its master having fallen ill, the bird became very sad; but finding one day that the window of the sick-room was left open, it flew in, and came close to the invalid, manifesting by its caresses the joy it felt at seeing him again.

TheTurkey Buzzard(Vultur aura) is a native of the same hemisphere as the preceding species, but is more addicted to temperate climates: it is met with as far north as the shores of the great chain of lakes. It is the same size as the Urubu, and its habits of life are nearly identical. Like the Urubu, too, it is protected by the laws. In Peru, for instance, any one who kills an Aura is punished by a fine of fifty piastres; in Cuba, the culprit is excommunicated. They are capable of standing a great amount of cold: when snow covers the ground in the State of Illinois they may be seen congregated in great numbers wherever carrion is to be found.

TheCommon Vulture(Neophron percnopterus, Yarrell) is in the Old World that which the Urubu and the Turkey Buzzard are in the New. It is very common in Greece and Turkey, and especially in Egypt and Arabia. In Constantinople and other Eastern cities it performs the duty of removing all the putrid matter which the carelessness and apathy of the inhabitants allow to remain in the streets. A great amount of respect is consequently paid to these birds; and although the law inflicts no penalty for killing them, they nevertheless enjoy the most perfect security in the midst of the Mussulman population.

These birds were well known to the ancients, who gave them the name ofPercnopteruson account of their black wings. The Egyptians classed them among sacred birds, and often represented them on their monuments as religious symbols. Flocks of them are in the habit of following caravans across the desert, always finding something to pick up; and, as they invariably accompany the pilgrims in their journey to Mecca every year, some devout Mussulmen have bequeathed money sufficient to support a certain number of the birds which manifest such fidelity to the faith of Islam.

They are about the size of a Fowl; hence they obtain the nameof Pharaoh's Chickens, by which they are designated in Egyptian. Although they do not manifest much inclination for living prey, they will sometimes attack small mammals which are incapable of defence or flight. The Crow is an adversary whose superiority they never fail to acknowledge, and rarely dare to resist.

The Pondicherry Vulture (Vultur ponticerianus), the Indian Vulture (Vultur indicus), and Kolbe's Vulture (Vultur Kolbii), are also deserving of notice; the two former are found principally in Hindostan, the latter in different parts of Africa as well as Java.

The Vultures properly so called (Vultur, Cuv.) have the head and neck bare, the latter being surrounded at its base by a ruff or collar of feathers; the nostrils round or oval; the tarsi bare or feathered on the upper portion; the middle toe very long; the wings pointed, and almost hanging down to the ground. Their faculty of flight, although powerful, is slow and heavy; they take wing with difficulty, and this fact has procured for them their name ofVultur(volatus tardus, slow flight). Preferring putrid meat, they feed but little on flesh in a fresh state, although they do not absolutely refuse it; they consequently seldom attack living animals.

Buffon has branded the Vulture with a stigma of infamy which will always cast an odium on its name. "Vultures," says he, "are actuated by nothing but a degraded instinct of gluttony and greediness. They will never contend with the living if they can glut their appetites on the dead. The Eagle attacks its enemies or its victims face to face; it pursues them, fights them, and seizes them by its own individual prowess. Vultures, on the contrary, however slight may be the resistance which they anticipate, combine in flocks like cowardly assassins, and are rather thieves than warriors—birds of carnage rather than birds of prey; for these are the only birds which are so madly devoted to carrion that they pick the very bones of a decaying carcass. Corruption and infection seem to attract instead of repelling them." Further on, too, he adds, "In comparing birds with quadrupeds, the Vulture seems to combine the strength and cruelty of the tiger with the cowardice and gluttony of the jackal."

The great naturalist has, however, somewhat calumniated theVulture. In depicting it in such very dark colours, his desire seems to be to contrast it with the Eagle, which he had represented as the highest type of courage and nobility; and he has evidently yielded to the temptation to make the contrast between the two birds as striking as possible. The idea of this antithesis must, in fact, have led Buffon's mind astray, as he was often more fond of figure than fact. The Vulture seeks after carcasses because it really prefers them to living prey; and its not attacking living animals, like the rest of the family, is caused by the fact that it is neither armed nor organised for such an attack. It obeys the irresistible and ordained instincts of its nature, and in this we have no right to discover any feeling of cowardice. In the present day it is really time to have done with all these time-worn rhetorical fancies of the old naturalists, which are in continual and complete variance with the results of science and observation.

Fig. 304.—The Yellow Vulture (Vultur fulvus).

The Vulture genus comprises several species, all of which belong to the Old World.

The Yellow Vulture (Fig. 304), the size of which is about equal to that of the Goose, is a native more especially of the South and South-east of Europe. It is common in the Pyrenees, Alps, Sardinia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, and Spain; it is rarely seen in France. It makes its nest in the crevice of some inaccessible rock. When pressed by hunger it shows no fear in attacking living animals; it is thus an object of dread among the shepherds along the sea-coast of the Mediterranean. It is easily tamed when caught young. Of this fact M. Nordmann gives us an instance:—

"A lady residing at Taganrog," says he, "was in possession of a Yellow Vulture which was in the habit every morning of leaving its home and resorting to the fresh-meat market, where the bird was well known and usually fed. If it so happened that it was refused its daily pittance, it was always well able to get hold of it by some cunning or other; and then, after the larceny was committed, the bird would take itself off to the roof of some neighbouring house, so as to consume its plunder in peace, and safe from any attack. This bird would often cross the Sea of Azoff, and visit the city of the same name, situated opposite Taganrog; and, after having spent the day there, would come back at night to the house of its mistress."

There is a variety of the above bird rather larger than the one just noticed. It is common in the Alps, Pyrenees, the Tyrol, the Greek Archipelago, and also in the South of Spain, in Egypt, and a great part of Africa. In autumn it leaves the temperate regions to winter in some warmer clime. M. Degland and M. Bouteille mention various instances of intelligence and courage shown by it, for it has been known to repel dogs. Another bird of the same kind, having flown away from its master's house, grievously wounded two men who endeavoured to catch it. The shepherds fear it even more than the preceding.

Fig. 305—Sociable Vulture (Vultus auricularis)

The Sociable Vulture (Fig. 305) is a native of the lofty mountain regions of Africa. It has a fleshy crest, which, taking its rise close to each ear, extends down the neck; from this it derives its Latin specific name. Levaillant, who often observedit in Africa, was several times a witness of its voracity. One day he had killed a couple of buffaloes, and, after having had them cut up, caused the quarters of meat to be hung to dry in the sun; they were soon assailed by a flock of these Vultures, which carried away the pieces of meat in spite of the numerous gunshots with which they were greeted. On another occasion, having killed three zebras at some distance from his camp, he went to find a waggon to carry them away; on his return he found nothing but the bones remaining, round which hundreds of Vultures were hovering.

The Oricou is of somewhat considerable size; it is about four feet and three-quarters in length, and the spread of its wings measures as much as three yards and a half. It builds its nest among inaccessible steep rocks.

Lastly, the Chinese Vulture (Vultur leuconotus), which is about the size of a Turkey, is of a dirty brownish black on the body, and white about the shoulders; it is very common in the southern portions of the Celestial Empire.

This family comprehends but one single species, the Secretary Bird, which in its organisation seems allied to the Waders.

TheSecretary Bird(Gypogeranus serpentarius),Fig. 306, has a widely-opening bill, very crooked and very powerful; a projecting superciliary arch; feathered legs; tarsi very long, and covered, as well as the toes, with large and hard scales. The tail is tapering, and the two middle feathers are longer than the others. The wings, which are short and provided with bony protuberances, form most destructive weapons, which the bird uses with muchskill to disable the serpents, of which its food principally consists. It has on its head a tuft of long feathers, which can be raised at will. This has been the origin of its name, in allusion to the custom that clerks had of placing their pen behind their ear in the days when goose-quills were used for writing. Its toes are short, and its claws blunt and well adapted for walking. It consequently runs very rapidly; hence it sometimes obtains the name of Messenger Bird.

Fig. 306.—Secretary Bird (Gypogeranus serpentarius).

A contest between a Secretary Bird and a Serpent is a most curious sight. The reptile, when attacked suddenly, stops and rears itself up, swelling its neck and showing anger by shrill hissings.

"At this instant," says Levaillant, "the bird of prey, spreadingone of his wings, holds it in front of him, and covers both his legs as well as the lower part of his body with it as if with a buckler. The reptile makes a spring at his enemy; the bird makes a bound, and spurning the Serpent with his wing, retreats again, jumping about in every direction in a mode which to a spectator appears highly grotesque. He soon returns to the combat, ever presenting to the venomous tooth of his adversary nothing but the end of his well-protected wing; and whilst the latter is fruitlessly expending its poison by biting the callous feathers, the bird is inflicting vigorous blows with his other wing. At last the reptile, stunned and wavering, rolls at full length in the dust; the bird then cleverly catches hold of it and throws it several times up into the air, until the victim becoming exhausted and powerless, the bird crushes its skull with his sharp-pointed bill. The Serpent is then swallowed whole by its conqueror, unless it is too big, in which case it is first torn in pieces."

The Secretary Bird does not feed exclusively on serpents; it also consumes lizards, tortoises, and even insects; its voracity is extreme, and it possesses a power of digestion which is really surprising. Levaillant killed one the stomach of which contained twenty-one small tortoises, still whole; eleven lizards, eight or nine inches long; three serpents of a length varying from two to two and a half feet; a perfect heap of grasshoppers and other insects; and, lastly, a great pellet of various remains, which it had not been able to assimilate, and which would have ultimately been vomited up.

These birds are natives of the arid plains of South Africa. They pair about the month of July, the male birds having first engaged in sanguinary conflicts for the choice of their mates. Their nest, which is flat, and lined on the inside with down and feathers, is constructed in the thickest bushes, or on the loftiest trees, in which two or three eggs, of a white hue spotted with red, are laid. The young ones are very late in quitting the parental home; for they do not leave it till they have acquired full development. Nearly four months elapse before they are able to stand firmly and run about with complete freedom.

The Secretary Bird is much appreciated at the Cape of Good Hope, on account of the services it renders in destroyingvenomous reptiles. As it is easily tamed if captured when young, the colonists have made a domestic bird of it, and use it to protect their poultry against the incursions of serpents and rats. With the inhabitants of the poultry-yard it is always on good terms, even to quelling the quarrels which spring up among the Gallinaceæ around it. But it must be related that it is necessary to see that it is sufficiently fed, for otherwise it will not hesitate to help itself occasionally to a chicken.

In 1832 the Secretary Bird was introduced into the French West Indies, particularly Guadaloupe and Martinique, on purpose to make war upon theTrigonocephalus, or Rattlesnake, a dangerous reptile swarming in those countries, which we mentioned in a previous portion of this work. The introduction of the Secretary Bird into the Antilles proved to be a real benefit. In order to be convinced of this it is only necessary to read the interesting work published a few years ago on this question by M. Rufz de Lavison, who was for a long time an inhabitant of the French West Indies before he became director of the Jardin Zoologique d'Acclimatation, in Paris.

THE END.PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD, LONDON.

FOOTNOTES.1Vide, however,p. 8.—Ed.2This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment advocating the tenets propounded by Mr. Charles Darwin.—Ed.3"The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. "The Insect World," from the French of the same author.4By some naturalists theAmphibiaare considered as a distinct class, by other as a sub-class either ofReptiliaor ofPisces. Of the reptiles proper (at present existing), the arrangement into the ordersTestudinata(or Tortoises),Sauria(or Lizards), andOphidia(or Snakes), is the one most generally adopted; but De Blainville elevates theLoricata(or Crocodiles) to the rank of an order, and others have adopted a division of corresponding rank,Saurophidia, for theAnguisseries above referred to; but the latter are merely limbless Lizards (or with abortive limbs) akin to the Scinques.—Ed.5Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless manifest the strongest parental affection.—Ed.6TheNecturus, a Siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has a series of small, fang-like teeth above and below, which are stated to give an envenomed bite.—"Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1857, p. 61. For poison-organs in certain fishes,videthe same publication for 1864, p. 155.—Ed.7Videsubsequent notes on this subject, inp. 31, &c.8They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than of Reptiles, aspiscineforms certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinaryreptiliancondition of advancement; their reproduction especially favouring this view or idea.—Ed.9The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American Batrachians, as theNototrema marsupiatumof Mexico, and theNotode'phys oviferaof Venezuela. In theAlytes obstetricansof France, Switzerland, and the Rhine district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the male parent!—Ed.10In Dr. Günther's Catalogue of theBatrachia Salientia(as Dr. Gray terms them) in the collection of the British Museum, published in 1858, and which includes all the ascertained species up to the time of publication, as many as 282 are enumerated, which are arranged under twenty-five groups holding the rank of families.—Ed.11In the British Museum Catalogue (1850) these Amphibians are styledBatrachia Gradientia, and are distributed under three families, comprising fifty-two recognised species. The classAmphibiais divided by Dr. Gray into five orders—viz.Batrachia,Pseudosauria,Pseudophidia,Pseudichthyes, andMeantia. Of these the first, or theBatrachia, are divided into the sub-ordersSalientiaandGradientia, the latter consisting of three families,Salamandridæ,Molgidæ, andPlethodontidæ. The second order,Pseudosauria, comprises the familiesProtonopsidæ(which contains theSieboldtia maxima) andAmphiumidæ. The third order,Pseudophidia, consists of only one family,Cæciliidæ. The fourth order,Pseudichthyes, also contains one family only, theLepidosirenidæ. The fifth order,Meantia, comprises the two familiesProteidæandSirenidæ. Twenty-four ascertained species are distributed amongst the last four of these orders; but the limits of this work do not permit of a more detailed notice of these various groups ofBatrachia Gradientia. More recently, Dr. Günther, in his work on the reptiles of the Indian region, has pointed out certain structural characters connected with the generative system which show that thePseudophidiado not properly belong to theBatrachia; nor is their place in the system as yet quite satisfactorily determined. They seem rather to be a very humble form of reptile; while thePseudichthyesshould rather be subordinated to the classPisces: though, as we have seen, there are naturalists who would refer all of theBatrachiato the fish class, certain forms amongst them rising to a parallelism of development withReptilia, but still not constituting true reptiles. The mode of reproduction especially is in favour of this view. BothPseudophidiaandPseudichthyesare intertropical or subtropical animals, whereas the rest of theBatrachia Gradientiabelong almost exclusively to the northern temperate zone; any exceptional case occurring probably in very elevated regions. Of sixty-six ascertained species, forty-nine are American, and there are five from Japan, inclusive of theSieboldtia maxima. But more species have been discovered since the catalogue cited has been drawn up, and of course there must be many yet to be discovered. Five species are referred to thePseudophidia, and three only to thePseudichthyes.—Ed.12"A Hunter's Life in South Africa," vol. ii. p. 133.Videalso Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa," vol. ii. p. 34. We have personally captured or assisted in capturing various species of both families in India, and it is no easy matter to do so sometimes, from the rapidity of their movements among the branches of trees and bushes; but most assuredly we never saw one of these most beautiful reptiles attempt to dart or to spurt at anybody, and as they have no poison fangs the latter must needs be an error.—Ed.13Although theCobra di capellais so plentiful in India, we could never hear of one instance of a European being stung by one during a residence of more than twenty-one years in that country. They prey chiefly on Rats, the presence of which is the attraction which brings them about human habitations; and they also prey occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon Toads.—Ed.14"Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, "notices the affection that subsists between the male and female Asp (or African Cobra); and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its death"—lib. viii. c. 37.15This name being also applied to the harmlessTortrix scytale16We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass cover of the box in which it was kept.—Ed.17Dekay, in his "Natural History of New York," remarks that it is a popular belief that Hogs are particularly destructive to Rattlesnakes; but neither their bristly hide nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three Hogs in one season by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake.—Ed.18In Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii. p. 59), we read—"May 19th. I lost my best Dog, Cæsar. He had seized a large Puff-adder by the tail, and shook it. When the Snake was released it darted at the Dog's face, and having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like a Bull-dog until it was killed. The Dog only survived ten minutes."—Ed.19A few cases have been known.—Ed.20Moodie's "Ten Years in South Africa," vol. i. p. 318.21Subsequent experiments with the virus of the Indian Cobra have conclusively proved that ammonia is not a sufficient antidote, as alleged inp. 95.—Ed.22"Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1850, p. 106.23"A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," by P. H. Gosse.24From the noise made by their wings they are in some localities called Whistlers.25Catesby says: "These birds frequent near the sea-coasts of Carolina. They fly close to the surface of the water, from which they seem to receive somewhat of food."26Ivory Gull of Yarrell.27The Masked Gull of Yarrell.28Black-headed Gull of Yarrell.29From the Portuguese wordAlcatraz, applied by the early navigators of that nation to Cormorants and large sea-birds.—Ed.30The weight of this bird much varies. A specimen in the Leverian Museum measured thirteen feet from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. One shot off the Cape of Good Hope was said to be seventeen and a half feet.—Ed.31Captain Cook mentions a variety frequently captured by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka and the Kurile Islands.32In China a great number of species are to be found, all robed in the most brilliant plumage, nine of which we have collected.—Ed.

1Vide, however,p. 8.—Ed.

2This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment advocating the tenets propounded by Mr. Charles Darwin.—Ed.

3"The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. "The Insect World," from the French of the same author.

4By some naturalists theAmphibiaare considered as a distinct class, by other as a sub-class either ofReptiliaor ofPisces. Of the reptiles proper (at present existing), the arrangement into the ordersTestudinata(or Tortoises),Sauria(or Lizards), andOphidia(or Snakes), is the one most generally adopted; but De Blainville elevates theLoricata(or Crocodiles) to the rank of an order, and others have adopted a division of corresponding rank,Saurophidia, for theAnguisseries above referred to; but the latter are merely limbless Lizards (or with abortive limbs) akin to the Scinques.—Ed.

5Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless manifest the strongest parental affection.—Ed.

6TheNecturus, a Siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has a series of small, fang-like teeth above and below, which are stated to give an envenomed bite.—"Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1857, p. 61. For poison-organs in certain fishes,videthe same publication for 1864, p. 155.—Ed.

7Videsubsequent notes on this subject, inp. 31, &c.

8They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than of Reptiles, aspiscineforms certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinaryreptiliancondition of advancement; their reproduction especially favouring this view or idea.—Ed.

9The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American Batrachians, as theNototrema marsupiatumof Mexico, and theNotode'phys oviferaof Venezuela. In theAlytes obstetricansof France, Switzerland, and the Rhine district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the male parent!—Ed.

10In Dr. Günther's Catalogue of theBatrachia Salientia(as Dr. Gray terms them) in the collection of the British Museum, published in 1858, and which includes all the ascertained species up to the time of publication, as many as 282 are enumerated, which are arranged under twenty-five groups holding the rank of families.—Ed.

11In the British Museum Catalogue (1850) these Amphibians are styledBatrachia Gradientia, and are distributed under three families, comprising fifty-two recognised species. The classAmphibiais divided by Dr. Gray into five orders—viz.Batrachia,Pseudosauria,Pseudophidia,Pseudichthyes, andMeantia. Of these the first, or theBatrachia, are divided into the sub-ordersSalientiaandGradientia, the latter consisting of three families,Salamandridæ,Molgidæ, andPlethodontidæ. The second order,Pseudosauria, comprises the familiesProtonopsidæ(which contains theSieboldtia maxima) andAmphiumidæ. The third order,Pseudophidia, consists of only one family,Cæciliidæ. The fourth order,Pseudichthyes, also contains one family only, theLepidosirenidæ. The fifth order,Meantia, comprises the two familiesProteidæandSirenidæ. Twenty-four ascertained species are distributed amongst the last four of these orders; but the limits of this work do not permit of a more detailed notice of these various groups ofBatrachia Gradientia. More recently, Dr. Günther, in his work on the reptiles of the Indian region, has pointed out certain structural characters connected with the generative system which show that thePseudophidiado not properly belong to theBatrachia; nor is their place in the system as yet quite satisfactorily determined. They seem rather to be a very humble form of reptile; while thePseudichthyesshould rather be subordinated to the classPisces: though, as we have seen, there are naturalists who would refer all of theBatrachiato the fish class, certain forms amongst them rising to a parallelism of development withReptilia, but still not constituting true reptiles. The mode of reproduction especially is in favour of this view. BothPseudophidiaandPseudichthyesare intertropical or subtropical animals, whereas the rest of theBatrachia Gradientiabelong almost exclusively to the northern temperate zone; any exceptional case occurring probably in very elevated regions. Of sixty-six ascertained species, forty-nine are American, and there are five from Japan, inclusive of theSieboldtia maxima. But more species have been discovered since the catalogue cited has been drawn up, and of course there must be many yet to be discovered. Five species are referred to thePseudophidia, and three only to thePseudichthyes.—Ed.

12"A Hunter's Life in South Africa," vol. ii. p. 133.Videalso Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa," vol. ii. p. 34. We have personally captured or assisted in capturing various species of both families in India, and it is no easy matter to do so sometimes, from the rapidity of their movements among the branches of trees and bushes; but most assuredly we never saw one of these most beautiful reptiles attempt to dart or to spurt at anybody, and as they have no poison fangs the latter must needs be an error.—Ed.

13Although theCobra di capellais so plentiful in India, we could never hear of one instance of a European being stung by one during a residence of more than twenty-one years in that country. They prey chiefly on Rats, the presence of which is the attraction which brings them about human habitations; and they also prey occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon Toads.—Ed.

14"Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, "notices the affection that subsists between the male and female Asp (or African Cobra); and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its death"—lib. viii. c. 37.

15This name being also applied to the harmlessTortrix scytale

16We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass cover of the box in which it was kept.—Ed.

17Dekay, in his "Natural History of New York," remarks that it is a popular belief that Hogs are particularly destructive to Rattlesnakes; but neither their bristly hide nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three Hogs in one season by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake.—Ed.

18In Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii. p. 59), we read—"May 19th. I lost my best Dog, Cæsar. He had seized a large Puff-adder by the tail, and shook it. When the Snake was released it darted at the Dog's face, and having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like a Bull-dog until it was killed. The Dog only survived ten minutes."—Ed.

19A few cases have been known.—Ed.

20Moodie's "Ten Years in South Africa," vol. i. p. 318.

21Subsequent experiments with the virus of the Indian Cobra have conclusively proved that ammonia is not a sufficient antidote, as alleged inp. 95.—Ed.

22"Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1850, p. 106.

23"A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," by P. H. Gosse.

24From the noise made by their wings they are in some localities called Whistlers.

25Catesby says: "These birds frequent near the sea-coasts of Carolina. They fly close to the surface of the water, from which they seem to receive somewhat of food."

26Ivory Gull of Yarrell.

27The Masked Gull of Yarrell.

28Black-headed Gull of Yarrell.

29From the Portuguese wordAlcatraz, applied by the early navigators of that nation to Cormorants and large sea-birds.—Ed.

30The weight of this bird much varies. A specimen in the Leverian Museum measured thirteen feet from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. One shot off the Cape of Good Hope was said to be seventeen and a half feet.—Ed.

31Captain Cook mentions a variety frequently captured by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka and the Kurile Islands.

32In China a great number of species are to be found, all robed in the most brilliant plumage, nine of which we have collected.—Ed.

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