Raw materials[14]Cotton. Nitrating acid. Ether-alcohol (solvent). Denitrating chemicals.Labour(a) Nitrating and preparing collodion. Denitrating and bleaching.(b) Textile operations. Spinning. Winding and twisting. Rewinding.PowerMaking, filtering, and distributing collodion. Driving textile machinery.
Added to which are the costs of expert management and supervision and general establishment expenses. It is evident that raw materials make up a large fraction of the total cost; also that a very large item is the waste work of converting the cellulose into nitrate, only to remove the nitric groups so soon as the cellulose is obtained as thread.
It is clear that the aqueous solutions of cellulose have a double advantage in this respect—not only do they readily yield an approximately pure cellulose as a direct product of regeneration or decomposition, but the first cost of the solution is very much less. With these newer products, therefore, the spinning problem enters on a new phase of struggle. It is certain that at selling prices at or about 5s.to 7s., very large markets will be open to the product or products. The two processes which are or may be able to fulfil this demand are those based (1) on cuprammonium solutions of cellulose, (2) on the sulphocarbonate or viscose. As regardsfirst costof the solution the latter has a large advantage. One ton of wood pulp (at 12l.) can certainly be obtained in solution in a condition ready for spinning at a total cost (materials) of less than 30l.The cuprammonium process, so far as 'outside' information goes, requires for production of the solution (1) cotton as raw material, (2) ammonia (calc. as concentrated aqueous) equal to 1-1/2 times its weight, and(3) metallic copper 25 p.ct. of its weight; and the costs are approximately 100l.per ton. It is obvious that the materials are recoverable from the precipitating-bath, but at a certain added cost. We have no statements as to the proportion recoverable nor the costs incurred, and we are therefore unable to measure the total net cost of the regenerated cellulose by this process. It is certainly much less than by the collodion processes. As to the textile quality of the thread, the product has not yet been on a sufficiently wide selling basis for that to have been determined. There are a great many factors which enter here. Not merely the external characters of lustre, softness, and translucency, but the all-important quality of uniformity of thread. The collodion-spinning is a process still very defective in this respect, and the defect is no doubt referable to the difficulty of securing absolute physical invariability of the collodion. It is to be regretted, in the interests of scientific development, that none of the technologists who have published investigations of these processes have entered into the discussion of the fundamental factors of the spinning processes; we are, therefore, unable at this stage to discuss these elements of a full comparison in greater detail. We cannot, for this reason, say how far the cuprammonium process diverges in point of control from the standard of the collodion processes. Of the 'viscose' product we have a more intimate knowledge, and it certainly reaches a higher general standard than the older and now well-known artificial silks. The process is also sufficiently developed to enable the total costs of production to be estimated at a figure less than one-half that of the 'collodion' processes. This would assure to this system anentréein this country, and a basis of expansion limited only by the ordinary laws of supply and demand.
This prospect is opened up precisely at the moment when, for various reasons connected both with the difficulties ofmanufacture and the narrowing of the margin of profit, the proprietors of the two systems of collodion-spinning have decided to abandon all idea of manufacturing by these systems in this country.[15]We leave the discussion of the industrial problem at this point.
In regard to other developments based upon the exceptional character and properties of the sulphocarbonate, their further discussion will exemplify no general principles; and as regards technical detail they have been dealt with in the papers previously noticed.
As a purely general question, if there is to be any industry in these 'artificial' forms of cellulose, commensurate with the magnitude that usually belongs to the cellulose industries, it must come by way of a plastic or soluble form prepared at low cost, and conserving the essential molecular properties of the cellulose aggregate. These are the particular features of the sulphocarbonate. The obvious difficulties in the way of its industrial applications are those caused by the presence of alkali and sulphur compounds. These are dealt with by appropriate chemical means; but the fact that there is a special chemistry of the product has rendered its industrial progress slow. The work of the last five years in this, as in other applications of cellulose in its many derived forms, has resulted in a considerable addition to the domain of practical chemistry.
Further developments will make an increasing demand upon our grasp of the fundamental constitutional problems, to which it is the main purpose of the present volume to contribute.
FOOTNOTES:[11]This is the most complete notice that has appeared and the bibliography is exhaustive. The publication comes into our hands too late to be noticed in detail.[12]Text-book on Paper-making, Cross and Bevan (Spon, London: second edition, 1900).Chemistry of Paper-making, Griffin and Little (New York, 1894: Howard Lockwood & Co.).Handbuch d. Papierfabrikation, C. Hofmann (Berlin).Paper Trade Review, London (weekly).Papier-Zeitung, Berlin.[13]William Mather, M.P., of the firm of Mather & Platt, Limited, Manchester.[14]The actual costs varying considerably in the various countries, we cannot make any specific statement. But from estimates we have made, the costs of obtaining cotton in filtered solution as collodion multiply its value by 12-14, the denitrations adding further costs and raising this multiple to 18-20. In the same estimates we arrived at the conclusion that the item for raw materials made up 60 p.ct. of the total cost of the yarn.[15]The recent failure of a French company founded for the exploitation of the cuprammonium process may be taken as showing that it presents very considerable technical difficulties. It is a matter of common knowledge that this companyestimatedthe costs of production to be such as to enable the product to be sold at 12 fr. per kilo., whereas the costs actually obtaining were a large multiple of this figure.
[11]This is the most complete notice that has appeared and the bibliography is exhaustive. The publication comes into our hands too late to be noticed in detail.
[11]This is the most complete notice that has appeared and the bibliography is exhaustive. The publication comes into our hands too late to be noticed in detail.
[12]Text-book on Paper-making, Cross and Bevan (Spon, London: second edition, 1900).Chemistry of Paper-making, Griffin and Little (New York, 1894: Howard Lockwood & Co.).Handbuch d. Papierfabrikation, C. Hofmann (Berlin).Paper Trade Review, London (weekly).Papier-Zeitung, Berlin.
[12]Text-book on Paper-making, Cross and Bevan (Spon, London: second edition, 1900).Chemistry of Paper-making, Griffin and Little (New York, 1894: Howard Lockwood & Co.).Handbuch d. Papierfabrikation, C. Hofmann (Berlin).Paper Trade Review, London (weekly).Papier-Zeitung, Berlin.
[13]William Mather, M.P., of the firm of Mather & Platt, Limited, Manchester.
[13]William Mather, M.P., of the firm of Mather & Platt, Limited, Manchester.
[14]The actual costs varying considerably in the various countries, we cannot make any specific statement. But from estimates we have made, the costs of obtaining cotton in filtered solution as collodion multiply its value by 12-14, the denitrations adding further costs and raising this multiple to 18-20. In the same estimates we arrived at the conclusion that the item for raw materials made up 60 p.ct. of the total cost of the yarn.
[14]The actual costs varying considerably in the various countries, we cannot make any specific statement. But from estimates we have made, the costs of obtaining cotton in filtered solution as collodion multiply its value by 12-14, the denitrations adding further costs and raising this multiple to 18-20. In the same estimates we arrived at the conclusion that the item for raw materials made up 60 p.ct. of the total cost of the yarn.
[15]The recent failure of a French company founded for the exploitation of the cuprammonium process may be taken as showing that it presents very considerable technical difficulties. It is a matter of common knowledge that this companyestimatedthe costs of production to be such as to enable the product to be sold at 12 fr. per kilo., whereas the costs actually obtaining were a large multiple of this figure.
[15]The recent failure of a French company founded for the exploitation of the cuprammonium process may be taken as showing that it presents very considerable technical difficulties. It is a matter of common knowledge that this companyestimatedthe costs of production to be such as to enable the product to be sold at 12 fr. per kilo., whereas the costs actually obtaining were a large multiple of this figure.
Bardy, C. H.,157Bokorny, T.,43Bronnert, E.,54Bumcke, G., and Wolffenstein, R.,67Buntrock,25Cross, C. F.,139,152,155Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J.,92Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Briggs, J. F.,118Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Heiberg, T.,114Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Smith, C.,101,103,105,114,145De Haas, R. W. T., and Tollens, B.,151Faber, O. v., and Tollens, B.,71Feilitzen, H. v., and Tollens, B.,154Fenton, H. J. H.,8Fenton, H. J. H., and Gostling, M.,86Fraenkel, A., and Friedlaender, P.,26Gardner, P.,22Gilson, E.,112Hancock, W. C., and Dahl, O. W.,135Hoffmeister, W.,96,100Kleiber, A.,97Kröber, E.,121Krüger, M.,119Lange, H.,25Lewes, V. H.,15Luck, A., and Cross, C. F.,45Margosches, B. M.,159Morrell, R. S., and Crofts, J. M.,114Mylius, F.,21Nastukoff, H.,74Omelianski, V.,76Ruff, O.,117Salkowski, E.,113Schöne, A., and Tollens, B.,124Seidel, H.,149Sherman, H. C.,137Simonsen, E.,146Storer, F. H.,142Strehlenert, R. W.,158Suringar, H., and Tollens, B.,16,124Süvern, C.,63Tollens, B.,148,151Tollens, B., and Glaubitz, H.,122Vignon, L.,43,70,72,94Will, W., and Lenze, P.,41Winterstein, E.,109,144,153
Acetone, action on cellulose nitrates of diluted,46Acid-cellulose,68Acids, volatile, from cellulose,145Æschynomene aspera,135Alcohol from cellulose and wood,146Alcoholic soda, mercerisation results with,26Alkali-cellulose, effects of long storage on,31Amyloid, vegetable,153Arabinose from gluconic acid,117'Ash' of plants,13Bacterium xylinum,85Barley plant, chemical processes in the,103---- straw, carbohydrates of,105Bleaching,166Bran, digestion of,139Brommethylfurfural,8,84,86Carbohydrates, action of hydrogen bromide on,86;action of hydrogen peroxide on,114;nitrated, as food for mould fungi,43;nitrates of,41;quantitative separation of,96Carbohydrates of barley straw,105;of wheat,137;of yeast,113'Caro's reagent,'118'Celloxin,'71Cellulose, alcohol from,146;constitution of,77,92;fermentation of,76;industrial uses of,155;iodine reaction of,21;methods for the estimation of,3,4,16,19,97;nitration of,43;saccharification of,73;ultimate hydrolysis of,11;volatile acids from,145---- acetates, monoacetate, formation of,40;tetracetate, constitution of,80---- benzoates,34;from structureless cellulose,36;from three varieties of cotton,35;monobenzoate, properties of,36;dibenzoate, properties of,37;acetylation of,130;nitration of,38---- derivatives, commercial aspects of,171;saccharification of,73---- nitrates,44,45,83;structureless,45,51;cupric reducing power of,73;instability of,50,53---- sulphocarbonate,27;effects of the nature of the cellulose,28;---- —— solutions, analysis of,32;iodine reaction of,33;loss of carbon bisulphide,33;viscosity of,30Cell-wall constituents,97Cereal celluloses,101,105Chitin,112Chlorination, Cross and Bevan's method,19;statistics of,134Chloro-lignone,126Collodion.SeeSilk, artificialCotton, lustreing effect of mercerisation,23;mercerised, structural properties of,25;pentosane content of,148'Crude fibre,'17Cuprammonium solvent,21,58,173Currants, pectin of,152Denitration of collodion silk,56;of jute nitrate,133;products of,74Dioxybutyric acid,71Elder pith,137Eriodendron, seed hair of,92Explosives,44;sporting powders,52Fermentation of cellulose,76;of furfuroids,108;of sugar from wood,148Fibres, report on miscellaneous,139Flax boiling,168;spinning,161Fodder plants, pentosanes of,122Fungi, tissue constituents of,109Furfural from cellulose, oxycellulose, and hydrocellulose,70;derivative from lævulose,8;estimation as hydrazone and phloroglucide,119,121;oxidation of,114,118(refer also'Pentosanes')Furfuroids,8,10,102,105;assimilation of,108Gabriel's method of cellulose estimation,18Gluconic acid, action of hydrogen peroxide on,117Glucosamin,112Hemicellulose,96,97;determination and separation of,100Hönig's method of cellulose estimation,18'Hydralcellulose,'68Hydrocellulose,73;nitration of,43Hydrogen peroxide, oxidations with,114Hydroxyfurfural in lignocellulose,9,116,118Incandescent mantles of artificial silk,14,15Industrial appliances of cellulose,155Iodine reaction of cellulose,21Isosaccharinic acid,71Jute, composition of,141;quality of,140;treatment of,142(refer alsoLignocellulose)---- acetate,129---- benzoate,127;acetylation of,130;nitration of,132---- nitrate,131Ketoses, physiological importance of,9Lange method of cellulose estimation,18,98Lead compounds of nitrated carbohydrates,49Lignin,100Lignocellulose, constitution of,133;esters of,125;hydroxyfurfural in,9;new type of,135Lignone complex, properties of,126'Lignorosin,'151'Lustra-cellulose.'SeeSilk, artificialMalt, pentosanes of,122Mather system of boiling textiles,167Mercerization,22;shrinkage during,24Mercerised yarn, strength and elasticity of,25,26Methylhydroxyfurfural,84Mould fungi, nitrated carbohydrates as food for,43Mycosin,113Nitrated carbohydrates, lead compounds of,49Nitrates of carbohydrates,41Nitrocellulose (seeCellulose nitrates);silk,55'Normal' cellulose, definition of,27Normal paper,160Oxycellulose esters,72;nitration of,43;researches on,71,72,74;résuméof properties,94Oxygluconic acid,117Paper, deterioration of,155;normal standard,160;pulp, spinning of,169Peat, constituents of,154Pectins,151,152Pentosanes,100,109,144;constituents of cotton,124;constituents of fodder,122;estimation of,121;of seeds during germination,124'Permanent tissue,'103Phloroglucinol,119,121Plant tissues, carbohydrates of,96,97,99Plants, source of unsaturated compounds in,145Powders, manufacture of sporting,52Saccharification of cellulose and derivatives,73Schulze method of cellulose estimation,18,98Schweizer solution,101Seeds, pentosanes in germinating,124Silica in plant tissues,13Silk, artificial,54,62,63,172;bibliography of,60;from cuprammonium,58,64,173;from nitrocellulose (collodion),55,63,172;from viscose,59;from zinc chloride,59;reactions of,64---- natural, reactions of,64Straws,101,105Succinic acid from furfural,118Sulphite waste liquors,149,164'Swedish' filter paper,14Tissue constituents,99,109Trees, composition of trunk woods,142Viscose and viscoid,157,158,159---- silk,59,175---- —— specific gravity of,34(refer alsoCellulosesulphocarbonate)'Vulcanised fibre,'20Weende, method of cellulose estimation (crude fibre),17,98Welsbach mantles,14;Clamond type,15Wheat grain, insoluble carbohydrates of,137Wood, alcohol from,146,148Wood-cellulose, waste liquors,149Wood-gum,144Wood-pulp, processes,162Wood, trunks of trees,142Yeast, carbohydrates of,113Zinc chloride, artificial silk,59;solvent action of,20