FOOTNOTES

Stoic hymnology.

258.Meanwhile the Stoics actively developed their own ideal of worship, namely the rendering of praise and honour to the gods by means of hymns. ‘It is reasonable,’ said Zeno, ‘to honour the gods[108].’ The hymn of Cleanthes shows the form in which this honour could find expression, and though in the main it is an outburst of individual conviction, yet it contains the germ of public hymnology[109]. The value of music in public worship was recognised by Diogenes ofBabylon[110]. Posidonius laid it down that the best and most pious worship of the gods is to honour them with pure mind and voice[111]. Epictetus speaks continually in this spirit, and gives us examples of prose hymnology: ‘great is God, who has given us implements with which we shall cultivate the earth[112]’; ‘I give thee all thanks that thou hast allowed me to join in this thy assemblage of men, and to see thy works, and to comprehend this thy administration[113].’ Thus ought we ‘to sing hymns to the deity, and bless him, and tell of his benefits[114].’

Prayer.

259.Prayer to the gods may be taken as more characteristic of private and individual worship, though the paradox is worthy of attention that men should ask nothing of the gods that they cannot ask publicly[115]. The whole problem of prayer is so fully and admirably treated upon Stoic lines by Juvenal in his Tenth Satire, that nothing can be added to his exposition but the evidence that his teaching is in fact Stoic. Let us then enter the temples and listen to men’s prayers. First they beg the doorkeeper for admission, though the deity is equally near to them outside; then they raise their hands to the sky, or press their mouths close to the ear of an image[116]. To the unlistening deity they pour out wishes so shameful that they could not let a fellow-man share their secret[117]. Decrepit old men babble prayers for long life, and make themselves out younger than they are[118]. Another prays for riches[119], or for some other thing that will do him harm[120]. Undertakers pray for a busy season[121]. Parents and nurses (and these are the nearest to innocence) pray for the success of their children in life[122]. They may be excused, butthe thoughtful man should know that the advantages for which friends have prayed have often in the end proved a man’s destruction[123]. He should examine his own heart, and recognise that his prayers till now have been unworthy and foolish[124]. Since the gods wish us well, let us leave it to them to choose what is best for us[125]. ‘Look up to God, and say:—deal with me for the future as thou wilt: I am of the same mind as thou art. I am thine, I refuse nothing that pleases thee[126].’ ‘Seek not that the things which happen should happen as you wish; but wish the things that happen to be as they are: and you will have a tranquil flow of life[127].’

Self-examination.

260.Prayer so regarded becomes not merely an act of resignation, in which a man ceases to battle against a destiny that is too strong for him; it is a daily examination of his soul, to know whether it is in tune with the purposes of the universe. This examination is a religious exercise, never to be omitted before sleep. It is inculcated both by Seneca and Epictetus. ‘How beautiful’ says Seneca, ‘is this custom of reviewing the whole day! how quiet a sleep follows on self-examination! The mind takes its place on the judgment-seat, investigates its own actions, and awards praise or blame according as they are deserved[128].’ And Epictetus adopts the verses ascribed to Pythagoras:

‘Let sleep not come upon thy languid eyesBefore each daily action thou hast scanned;What’s done amiss, what done, what left undone;From first to last examine all, and thenBlame what is wrong, in what is right rejoice[129].’

‘Let sleep not come upon thy languid eyes

Before each daily action thou hast scanned;

What’s done amiss, what done, what left undone;

From first to last examine all, and then

Blame what is wrong, in what is right rejoice[129].’

Religious duty.

261.We are now in a position to sum up in technical language[130]the obligations of religion freed from superstition[131]. Our duty towards the gods is rightly to believe in them, to acknowledge their greatness and benevolence, to submit to them as the creators and rulers of the universe[132]. We may not light lamps in their honour on sabbath-days, nor crowd round their temples in the early hours of the morning; we may not offer Jove a towel nor Juno a mirror[133]. Our service to them is to make ourselves like to them; he who would win their favour, must be a good man[134]. Wheresoever they call us, we must follow with gladness, for they are wiser than we[135]. Without God we must attempt nothing, but we must always reflect, examine ourselves, and seek to learn the divine will[136]. We came here when it pleased God, and we must depart when he shall please[137]. ‘So live,’ says the Stoic teacher, ‘with your fellow-men, as believing that God sees you: so hold converse with God, as to be willing that all men should hear you[138].’

FOOTNOTES[1]e.g. Theodor Mommsen,Roman Historyiii 432 (Dickson’s translation).[2]‘omnino dividunt nostri totam istam de dis immortalibus quaestionem in partes quattuor. primum docent esse deos; deinde quales sint; tum, mundum ab iis administrari; postremo, consulere eos rebus humanis’ Cic.N. D.ii 1, 3.[3]‘λόγον, quem deum [Zeno] nuncupat’ Lact.ver. sap.9 (Arnim i 160); ‘rationem deum vocat Zeno’ Min. Felix 19, 10 (ib.); ‘[Zeno] rationem quandam, per omnem naturam rerum pertinentem, vi divina esse adfectam putat’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 36.[4]ἀρχὴν θεὸν τῶν πάντων, σῶμα ὄντα τὸ καθαρώτατον, ὑπέθεντο ὅ τε Χρύσιππος καὶ Ζήνων Hippol.Phil.21 (Arnim ii 1029).[5]τὸ δι’ ὅλου κεχωρηκὸς πνεῦμα θεὸν δογματίζουσιν Theoph.Autol.i 4 (Arnim ii 1033).[6]‘ille est prima omnium causa, ex qua ceterae pendent’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 2; ‘hic est causa causarum’N. Q.ii 45, 2.[7]‘[Chrysippus ait] ea quae natura fluerent et manarent [divina esse], ut aquam et terram et aera’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39.[8]‘[Chrysippus] deum ait ignem praeterea esse’ib.; ‘et deum ipsum ignem putavit [Zeno]’ August.adv. Ac.iii 17, 38 (Arnim i 157); τὸν θεὸν πῦρ νοερὸν εἰπόντες Euseb.pr. ev.15 (Arnim ii 1050).[9]οὐσίαν δὲ θεοῦ Ζήνων μέν φησι τὸν ὅλον κόσμον καὶ τὸν οὐρανόν Diog. L. vii 148; ‘Cleanthes ipsum mundum deum dicit esse’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 37; ‘vis illum vocare mundum? non falleris’ Sen.N. Q.ii 45, 3; ‘quid est deus? quod vides totum et quod non vides totum; solus est omnia’ib.i Prol. 13; ‘Iuppiter est quodcunque vides quocunque moveris’ LucanPhars.ix 580.[10]Arnim ii 1037 and 1039.[11]‘Zenoni et reliquis fere Stoicis aether videtur summus deus’ Cic.Ac.ii 41, 126.[12]‘Cleanthes ... solem dominari et rerum potiri putat’ib.[13]‘[Zeno] astris idem [sc. vim divinam] tribuit’N. D.i 14, 36; ‘[Cleanthes] divinitatem omnem tribuit astris’ib.14, 37.[14]‘tibi licet hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 1.[15]‘rectorem custodemque universi’N. Q.ii 45, 1; ‘stant beneficio eius omnia’Ben.iv 7, 1.[16]Arnim i 532.[17]‘[Chrysippus] ait vim divinam esse positam in universae naturae animo atque mente’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39; ‘quid est deus? mens universi’ Sen.N. Q.i Prol. 13; cf. Arnim i 157.[18]Arnim iii Ant. 35; ‘hunc eundem et fatum si dixeris, non mentieris’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 2.[19]‘quid aliud est natura quam deus?’ib.1.[20]‘[Chrysippus] deum dicit esse necessitatem rerum futurarum’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39; cf. Arnim ii 1076.[21]οὔτε βροτοῖς γέρας ἄλλο τι μεῖζον | οὔτε θεοῖς, ἢ κοινὸν ἀεὶ νόμον ἐν δίκῃ ὑμνεῖν CleanthesHymn38, 39; ‘naturalem legem [Zeno] divinam esse censet’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 36.[22]‘[Chrysippus] legis perpetuae et aeternae vim, quae quasi dux vitae atque magistra officiorum sit, Iovem dicit esse’ib.15, 40.[23]‘[Chrysippus] homines etiam eos, qui immortalitatem essent consecuti [deos dicit esse]’ib.15, 39; ‘Persaeus ... inventa ipsa divina dicit’ib.15, 38.[24]‘Antisthenes populares deos multos, naturalem unum esse [dicit]’ib.i 13, 32.[25]κύδιστ’ ἀθανάτων, πολυώνυμε ... Ζεῦ CleanthesHymn1 and 2; ‘Stoici dicunt non esse nisi unum deum et unam eandemque potestatem, quae pro ratione officiorum variis nominibus appellatur’ Serviusad Verg. Georg.i 5 (Arnim ii 1070).[26]οἱ μὲν γενητοὶ εἶναι καὶ φθαρτοὶ [λέγονται], οἱ δ’ ἀγένητοι Plut.Sto. rep.38, 5 (quoting from Chrysippus).[27]Galenqual. inc.6 (Arnim ii 1056).[28]‘ne hoc quidem [illi altissimi viri] crediderunt, Iovem, qualem in Capitolio et in ceteris aedibus colimus, mittere manu fulmina, sed eundem quem nos Iovem intellegunt, rectorem custodemque universi, animum ac spiritum mundi, operis huius dominum et artificem, cui nomen omne convenit ... idem Etruscis visum est’ Sen.N. Q.ii 45, 1 and 3.[29]See above, §97.[30]‘hominum sator atque deorum’Aen.i 254, and sopassim.[31]‘tum pater omnipotens fecundis imbribus Aether | coniugis in gremium laetae descendit, et omnes | magnus alit, magno commixtus corpore, fetus’ VirgilGeorg.ii 335-327.[32]This seems undoubtedly to be the meaning underlying the corrupt text of CleanthesHymn4; Pearson well compares κοινωνίαν δ’ ὑπάρχειν πρὸς ἀλλήλους (scil. θεοῦ καὶ ἀνθρώπων) διὰ τὸ λόγου μετέχειν Euseb.praep. ev.xv 15. See above, §97.[33]οὐρανὸς δέ ἐστιν ἡ ἐσχάτη περιφέρεια, ἐν ᾗ πᾶν ἵδρυται τὸ θεῖον Diog. L. vii 138; ..., ἐπεὶ ἐκεῖ ἐστι τὸ κυριώτατον μέρος τῆς τοῦ κόσμου ψυχῆς Corn.N. D.8.[34][Χρύσιππός φησι] παιδαριωδῶς λέγεσθαι καὶ γράφεσθαι καὶ πλάττεσθαι θεοὺς ἀνθρωποειδεῖς, ὃν τρόπον καὶ πόλεις καὶ ποταμούς Philod.de piet.11 (Arnim ii 1076); ‘est aliquid in illo Stoici dei, iam video; nec cor nec caput habet’ Sen.Apoc.8, 1.[35]‘Stoici negant habere ullam formam deum’ Lact.de ira18 (Arnim ii 1057).[36]In connexion with the association of God with the universe we may say (but only in a secondary sense) that God has spherical form; ἰδίαν ἔχει μορφὴν τὸ σφαιροειδές Frag. Herc. p. 250 (Arnim ii 1060); ‘quae vero vita tribuitur isti rotundo deo?’ Cic.N. D.i 10, 24.[37]πνεῦμα νοερὸν καὶ πυρῶδες, οὐκ ἔχον μὲν μορφήν, μεταβάλλον δ’ εἰς ὃ βούλεται καὶ συνεξομοιούμενον πᾶσιν Aët.plac.i 6, 1.[38]See above, §242, note 20.[39]θεὸν νοοῦμεν ζῷον μακάριον καὶ ἄφθαρτον καὶ εὐποιητικὸν ἀνθρώπων Plut.Sto. rep.38, 3. A similar definition is given in Diog. L. vii 147 as indicating the view of the Stoics generally.[40]‘inter omnes omnium gentium sententia constat; omnibus enim innatum est et in animo quasi insculptum, esse deos’ Cic.N. D.ii 4, 12; ‘nec ulla gens usquam est adeo extra leges moresque proiecta, ut non aliquos deos credat’ Sen.Ep.117, 6.[41]See above, §158.[42]οὐ γὰρ πλῆθος ἔχει συνετὴν κρίσιν οὔτε δικαίαν | οὔτε καλήν Cleanthes apud Clem. Al.Strom.v 3 (Arnim i 559).[43]See below, §294.[44]‘videmus ceteras opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate extabuisse ... quae [enim] anus tam excors inveniri potest, quae illa quae quondam credebantur apud inferos portenta, extimescat? opinionum enim commenta delet dies’ Cic.N. D.ii 2, 5.[45]As for instance Cicero does (following Posidonius)N. D.ii 5, 13.[46]See above, §158.[47]ἡ τῶν ὅλων φύσις ὑπὸ συγγενοῦς ὀφείλει καταλαμβάνεσθαι τοῦ λόγου Sext.math.ix 93, see §149.[48]See the next note.[49]‘si di non sunt, quid esse potest in rerum natura homine melius? in eo enim solo ratio est, qua nihil potest esse praestantius’ Cic.N. D.ii 6, 16.[50]‘si enim’ inquit [Chrysippus] ‘est aliquid in rerum natura, quod potestas humana efficere non possit; est certe id, quod illud efficit, homine melius. atqui res caelestes ab homine confici non possunt. est igitur id, quo illa conficiuntur, homine melius. id autem quid potius dixeris quam deum?’ib.[51]‘et tamen ex ipsa hominum sollertia esse aliquam [mundi] mentem, et eam quidem acriorem et divinam, existimare debemus. unde enim haec homo arripuit? ut ait apud Xenophontem Socrates’ib.18.[52]‘esse autem hominem, qui nihil in omni mundo melius esse quam se putet, insipientis arrogantiae est’ib.16.[53]See above, §83.[54]‘placet enim illi [sc. Epicuro] esse deos, quia necesse sit praestantem esse aliquam naturam, qua nihil sit melius’ Cic.N. D.ii 17, 46. See however Mayor’s note.[55]‘tantum vero ornatum mundi, tantam varietatem pulchritudinemque rerum caelestium ... si non deorum immortalium domicilium putes, nonne plane desipere videare? an ne hoc quidem intellegimus, omnia supera esse meliora, terram autem esse infimam, quam crassissimus circumfundat aer?’ etc. Cic.N. D.ii 6, 17. For the original argument of Chrysippus see Sext.math.ix 86 (Arnim ii 1014).[56]‘haec ita fieri omnibus inter se concinentibus mundi partibus profecto non possent, nisi ea uno divino et continuato spiritu continerentur’ Cic.N. D.ii 7, 19. Here cf. Sext.math.ix 78 to 85 (Arnim ii 1013).[57]Cic.N. D.ii 37, 93.[58]The third in the exposition of Cleanthes: ‘tertiam [causam dixit Cleanthes esse], quae terreret animos fulminibus tempestatibus ... pestilentia terrae motibus’ib.5, 14.[59]‘quartam causam esse, eamque vel maximam, conversionem caeli’ib.5, 15.[60]Arnim ii 1019.[61]‘[non] in hunc furorem omnes mortales consensissent adloquendi surda numina et inefficaces deos, nisi nossemus illorum beneficia’ Sen.Ben.iv 4, 2.[62]Sext.math.ix 123 (Arnim ii 1017).[63]ib.133 (Arnim i 152). Pearson (Z. 108) describes the argument as a ‘transparent sophistry’; but at the present time there is a widespread tendency towards its revival; see Höffding,Philosophy of Religion, ch. iii.[64]Xen.Mem.i 1, 2.[65]Cic.Div.i 5, 9 and 6, 10.[66]ib.3, 6; Diog. L. vii 149.[67]Divination is based upon the συμπάθεια τῶν ὅλων (continuatio coniunctioque naturae), Cic.Div.ii 69, 142. See also Epict.Disc.i 14, and above, §248.[68]‘[Tuscis] summa est fulgurum persequendorum scientia’ Sen.N. Q.ii 32, 2.[69]‘non ullo saecula dono | nostra carent maiore deum, quam Delphica sedes | quod siluit’ LucanPhars.v 111-113; cf. 86-96.[70]Epict.Disc.ii 7, 3 and 4. The Stoic belief in divination is very severely criticized by Zeller: ‘these vagaries show in Stoicism practical interests preponderating over science’Stoics, etc. p. 280. But the belief in μαντική is traced back to Zeno and Cleanthes, who were hardly ‘practical’ men in the sense in which Zeller seems to use the word.[71]See above, §245.[72]See above, §209.[73]Cic.N. D.ii 30, 77.[74]‘[di immortales] nec volunt obesse nec possunt. natura enim illis mitis et placida est’ Sen.Dial.iv 27, 1; ‘di aequali tenore bona sua per gentes populosque distribuunt, unam potentiam sortiti, prodesse’Ben.vii 31, 4.[75]‘Faune, Nympharum fugientum amator, | per meos fines et aprica rura | lenis incedas, abeasque parvis | aequus alumnis’ Hor.C.iii 18, 1-4.[76]‘tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum’ Lucr.R. N.i 102.[77]‘Does the Zeus at Olympia lift up his brow? No, his look is fixed as becomes him who is ready to say—Irrevocable is my word and shall not fail’ Epict.Disc.ii 8, 26 (quoting from Hom.Il.i 526).[78]‘sic vestras hallucinationes fero quemadmodum Iuppiter ineptias poetarum, quorum alius illi alas imposuit, alius cornua; alius adulterum illum induxit et abnoctantem, alius saevum in deos, alius iniquum in homines, alius parricidam et regni alieni paternique expugnatorem’ Sen.Dial.vii 26, 6.[79]This feeling finds expression at Rome as far back as the times of Hannibal; ‘hoc scelesti illi in animum inducunt suum, | Iovem se placare posse donis, hostiis; | et operam et sumptum perdunt’ Plaut.Rud.22 to 24.[80]‘[Chrysippus] disputat aethera esse eum, quem homines Iovem appellarent’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 40.[81]‘aer autem, ut Stoici disputant, Iunonis nomine consecratur ... effeminarunt autem eum Iunonique tribuerunt, quod nihil est eo mollius’ib.ii 26, 66.[82]‘quoniam tenuitate haec elementa paria sunt, dixerunt esse germana’ Serv.ad Verg. Aen.i 47 (Arnim ii 1066).[83]Rival philosophers in the earlier times, and the church fathers later, concurred in reviling Chrysippus because he extended this principle of interpretation to a ‘disgraceful’ representation found in Argos or Samos, in which Hera receives the divine seed in her mouth; yet Christian antiquity was about to absorb the similar notion of the conception of the Virgin Mary through the ear (‘quae per aurem concepisti’ in an old Latin hymn). Chrysippus of course rightly estimated the absurdity of criticising cosmic processes as if they were breaches of social decency, and by so doing relieved the pious souls of his own day from a real source of distress. See Arnim ii 1071-1074.[84]Cic.N. D.ii 26, 66.[85]ib.i 15, 40 and ii 26, 66.[86]‘Proserpinam, quam frugum semen esse volunt absconditamque quaeri a matre fingunt’ib.[87]ib.27, 68.[88]καὶ ὁ χρόνος δὲ τοιοῦτόν τί ἐστι· δαπανᾶται γὰρ ὑπ’ αὐτοῦ τὰ γινόμενα ἐν αὐτῷ CornutusN. D.6. The castration of Uranus by Cronus is thus explained by the Stoics: ‘caelestem naturam, id est igneam, quae per sese omnia gigneret, vacare voluerunt ea parte corporis, quae coniunctione alterius egeret ad procreandum’ Cic.N. D.ii 24, 64.[89]JustinApol.i 64 (Arnim ii 1096).[90]Sen.Ben.i 3, 9.[91]Aët.plac.i 6, 13.[92]φασὶ δὲ εἶναι καί τινας δαίμονας ἀνθρώπων συμπάθειαν ἔχοντας, ἐπόπτας τῶν ἀνθρωπείων πραγμάτων Diog. L. vii 151.[93]‘ásya [váruṇasya] spáśo ná ní miṣanti bhūrṇayaḥ’ Rigv. ix 73, 4.[94]τρὶς γὰρ μυρίοι εἰσὶν ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ | ἀθάνατοι Ζηνὸς φύλακες θνητῶν ἀνθρώπων Hes.Op. et Di.252, 253; see also §33.[95]‘et alia signa de caelo ad terram accidunt; | qui’st imperator divum atque hominum Iuppiter, | is nos per gentis hic alium alia disparat, | hominum qui facta mores pietatem et fidem | noscamus’ Plaut.Rud.8-12.[96]καὶ τούτῳ συμφωνεῖ τὸ τοὺς Διοσκούρους ἀγαθούς τινας εἶναι δαίμονας “σωτῆρας εὐσέλμων νεῶν” Sext.math.ix 86 (Arnim ii 1014); ‘clarum Tyndaridae sidus ab infimis | quassas eripiunt aequoribus rates’ Hor.C.iv 8, 31 and 32.[97]φαύλους δαίμονας ἀπέλιπε Χρύσιππος Plut.def. orac.17.[98]καθάπερ οἱ περὶ Χρύσιππον οἴονται φιλόσοφοι φαῦλα δαιμόνια περινοστεῖν, οἷς οἱ θεοὶ δημίοις χρῶνται κολασταῖς ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀνοσίους καὶ ἀδίκους ἀνθρώπουςqu. Rom.51.[99]Arnim ii 1101.[100]‘Posidonius censet homines somniare, quod plenus aer sit immortalium animorum’ Cic.Div.i 30, 64.[101]‘Genius, natale comes qui temperat astrum | naturae deus humanae, mortalis in unum | quodque caput’ Hor.Ep.ii 2, 187-189; ‘sepone in praesentia, quae quibusdam placent, uni cuique nostrum paedagogum dari deum, ex eorum numero quos Ovidius ait “de plebe deos”’ Sen.Ep.110, 1; ‘Zeus has placed by every man a guardian, every man’s daemon, to whom he has committed the care of the man; a guardian who never sleeps, is never deceived’ Epict.Disc.i 14, 12. M. Aurelius identifies this daemon with the principate (To himselfv 27).[102]Aët.plac.i 6, 9 and 15; Cic.N. D.ii 24, 62.[103]Arnim i 264. The feeling is reflected by Lucan: ‘estne dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aër, | et caelum et virtus? superos quid quaerimus ultra?’Phars.ix 578-9.[104]‘Varro dicit antiquos Romanos plus annos centum et septuaginta deos sine simulacro coluisse: “quod si adhuc mansisset, castius di observarentur”’ August.Civ. De.iv 31.[105]‘ne in victimis quidem deorum est honor’ Sen.Ben.i 6, 3.[106]‘To make libations and to sacrifice and to offer first-fruits according to the custom of our fathers, purely and not meanly nor scantily nor above our ability, is a thing which belongs to all to do’ Epict.Manual31, 5.[107]‘si conferre volumus nostra cum externis; ceteris rebus aut pares aut etiam inferiores reperiemur, religione, id est cultu deorum, multum superiores’ Cic.N. D.ii 3, 8.[108]See above, §250.[109]ὄφρ’ ἂν τιμηθέντες ἀμειβώμεσθά σε τιμῇ, | ὑμνοῦντες τὰ σὰ ἔργα διηνεκές, ὡς ἐπέοικεHymn36, 37.[110]περὶ τοίνυν τῆς διὰ τ(ῶν μου)σικῶν (τ)οῦ θείου τει(μῆς εἴρη)ται μὲν αὐτάρκως καὶ πρότερον Philod.mus.iv 66 (Arnim iii Diog. 64).[111]‘cultus autem deorum est optimus idemque castissimus atque sanctissimus plenissimusque pietatis, ut eos semper pura integra incorrupta et mente et voce veneremur’ Cic.N. D.ii 28, 71.[112]Epict.Disc.i 16, 17.[113]ib.iii 5, 10.[114]ib.i 16, 15.[115]See above, §121.[116]‘non sunt ad caelum elevandae manus, nec exorandus aedituus, ut nos ad aurem simulacri admittat; prope est a te deus’ Sen.Ep.41, 1.[117]‘turpissima vota dis insusurrant; si quis admoverit aurem, conticescent’ib.10, 5.[118]Sen.Dial.x 11, 1.[119]ib.xi 4, 2.[120]Ben.ii 14, 5.[121]ib.vi 38, 1.[122]Ep.32, 4.[123]‘etiamnunc optas, quod tibi optavit nutrix tua aut paedagogus aut mater? o quam inimica nobis sunt vota nostrorum!’ Sen.Ep.60, 1.[124]‘se quisque consulat et in secretum pectoris sui redeat et inspiciat, quid tacitus optaverit. quam multa sunt vota, quae etiam sibi fateri pudet! quam pauca, quae facere coram teste possimus!’Ben.vi 38, 5.[125]This sentiment we can trace back to the time of Plautus: ‘stulti hau scimus frustra ut simus, quom quid cupienter dari | petimus nobis: quasi quid in rem sit possimus noscere’ PlautusPseud.683-5.[126]Epict.Disc.ii 16, 42.[127]Manual8.[128]Sen.Dial.v 36, 2. He describes his practice with naïve detail: ‘cum sublatum e conspectu lumen est etconticuit uxormoris mei iam conscia, totum diem meum scrutor’ib.3.[129]Epict.Disc.iii 10, 2 and 3 (Long’s transl.).[130]‘quomodo sint di colendi, solet praecipi’ Sen.Ep.95, 47.[131]‘non enim philosophi solum, verum etiam maiores nostri superstitionem a religione separaverunt’ Cic.N. D.ii 28, 71.[132]‘primus est deorum cultus deos credere, deinde reddere illis maiestatem suam, reddere bonitatem, sine qua nulla maiestas est; scire illos esse, qui praesident mundo’ Sen.Ep.95, 50.[133]ib.95, 47.[134]‘vis deos propitiare? bonus esto. satis illos coluit, quisquis imitatus est’ib.95, 50.[135]‘You must believe that you have been placed in the world to obey them, and to yield to them in everything which happens, and voluntarily to follow it as being accomplished by the wisest intelligence’ Epict.Manual31, 1.[136]Disc.iii 22, 53 (compare Long’s transl. ii p. 83).[137]ib.iii 26, 30.[138]‘sic vive cum hominibus, tanquam deus videat; sic loquere cum deo, tanquam homines audiant’ Sen.Ep.10, 5.

[1]e.g. Theodor Mommsen,Roman Historyiii 432 (Dickson’s translation).

[2]‘omnino dividunt nostri totam istam de dis immortalibus quaestionem in partes quattuor. primum docent esse deos; deinde quales sint; tum, mundum ab iis administrari; postremo, consulere eos rebus humanis’ Cic.N. D.ii 1, 3.

[3]‘λόγον, quem deum [Zeno] nuncupat’ Lact.ver. sap.9 (Arnim i 160); ‘rationem deum vocat Zeno’ Min. Felix 19, 10 (ib.); ‘[Zeno] rationem quandam, per omnem naturam rerum pertinentem, vi divina esse adfectam putat’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 36.

[4]ἀρχὴν θεὸν τῶν πάντων, σῶμα ὄντα τὸ καθαρώτατον, ὑπέθεντο ὅ τε Χρύσιππος καὶ Ζήνων Hippol.Phil.21 (Arnim ii 1029).

[5]τὸ δι’ ὅλου κεχωρηκὸς πνεῦμα θεὸν δογματίζουσιν Theoph.Autol.i 4 (Arnim ii 1033).

[6]‘ille est prima omnium causa, ex qua ceterae pendent’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 2; ‘hic est causa causarum’N. Q.ii 45, 2.

[7]‘[Chrysippus ait] ea quae natura fluerent et manarent [divina esse], ut aquam et terram et aera’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39.

[8]‘[Chrysippus] deum ait ignem praeterea esse’ib.; ‘et deum ipsum ignem putavit [Zeno]’ August.adv. Ac.iii 17, 38 (Arnim i 157); τὸν θεὸν πῦρ νοερὸν εἰπόντες Euseb.pr. ev.15 (Arnim ii 1050).

[9]οὐσίαν δὲ θεοῦ Ζήνων μέν φησι τὸν ὅλον κόσμον καὶ τὸν οὐρανόν Diog. L. vii 148; ‘Cleanthes ipsum mundum deum dicit esse’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 37; ‘vis illum vocare mundum? non falleris’ Sen.N. Q.ii 45, 3; ‘quid est deus? quod vides totum et quod non vides totum; solus est omnia’ib.i Prol. 13; ‘Iuppiter est quodcunque vides quocunque moveris’ LucanPhars.ix 580.

[10]Arnim ii 1037 and 1039.

[11]‘Zenoni et reliquis fere Stoicis aether videtur summus deus’ Cic.Ac.ii 41, 126.

[12]‘Cleanthes ... solem dominari et rerum potiri putat’ib.

[13]‘[Zeno] astris idem [sc. vim divinam] tribuit’N. D.i 14, 36; ‘[Cleanthes] divinitatem omnem tribuit astris’ib.14, 37.

[14]‘tibi licet hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 1.

[15]‘rectorem custodemque universi’N. Q.ii 45, 1; ‘stant beneficio eius omnia’Ben.iv 7, 1.

[16]Arnim i 532.

[17]‘[Chrysippus] ait vim divinam esse positam in universae naturae animo atque mente’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39; ‘quid est deus? mens universi’ Sen.N. Q.i Prol. 13; cf. Arnim i 157.

[18]Arnim iii Ant. 35; ‘hunc eundem et fatum si dixeris, non mentieris’ Sen.Ben.iv 7, 2.

[19]‘quid aliud est natura quam deus?’ib.1.

[20]‘[Chrysippus] deum dicit esse necessitatem rerum futurarum’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 39; cf. Arnim ii 1076.

[21]οὔτε βροτοῖς γέρας ἄλλο τι μεῖζον | οὔτε θεοῖς, ἢ κοινὸν ἀεὶ νόμον ἐν δίκῃ ὑμνεῖν CleanthesHymn38, 39; ‘naturalem legem [Zeno] divinam esse censet’ Cic.N. D.i 14, 36.

[22]‘[Chrysippus] legis perpetuae et aeternae vim, quae quasi dux vitae atque magistra officiorum sit, Iovem dicit esse’ib.15, 40.

[23]‘[Chrysippus] homines etiam eos, qui immortalitatem essent consecuti [deos dicit esse]’ib.15, 39; ‘Persaeus ... inventa ipsa divina dicit’ib.15, 38.

[24]‘Antisthenes populares deos multos, naturalem unum esse [dicit]’ib.i 13, 32.

[25]κύδιστ’ ἀθανάτων, πολυώνυμε ... Ζεῦ CleanthesHymn1 and 2; ‘Stoici dicunt non esse nisi unum deum et unam eandemque potestatem, quae pro ratione officiorum variis nominibus appellatur’ Serviusad Verg. Georg.i 5 (Arnim ii 1070).

[26]οἱ μὲν γενητοὶ εἶναι καὶ φθαρτοὶ [λέγονται], οἱ δ’ ἀγένητοι Plut.Sto. rep.38, 5 (quoting from Chrysippus).

[27]Galenqual. inc.6 (Arnim ii 1056).

[28]‘ne hoc quidem [illi altissimi viri] crediderunt, Iovem, qualem in Capitolio et in ceteris aedibus colimus, mittere manu fulmina, sed eundem quem nos Iovem intellegunt, rectorem custodemque universi, animum ac spiritum mundi, operis huius dominum et artificem, cui nomen omne convenit ... idem Etruscis visum est’ Sen.N. Q.ii 45, 1 and 3.

[29]See above, §97.

[30]‘hominum sator atque deorum’Aen.i 254, and sopassim.

[31]‘tum pater omnipotens fecundis imbribus Aether | coniugis in gremium laetae descendit, et omnes | magnus alit, magno commixtus corpore, fetus’ VirgilGeorg.ii 335-327.

[32]This seems undoubtedly to be the meaning underlying the corrupt text of CleanthesHymn4; Pearson well compares κοινωνίαν δ’ ὑπάρχειν πρὸς ἀλλήλους (scil. θεοῦ καὶ ἀνθρώπων) διὰ τὸ λόγου μετέχειν Euseb.praep. ev.xv 15. See above, §97.

[33]οὐρανὸς δέ ἐστιν ἡ ἐσχάτη περιφέρεια, ἐν ᾗ πᾶν ἵδρυται τὸ θεῖον Diog. L. vii 138; ..., ἐπεὶ ἐκεῖ ἐστι τὸ κυριώτατον μέρος τῆς τοῦ κόσμου ψυχῆς Corn.N. D.8.

[34][Χρύσιππός φησι] παιδαριωδῶς λέγεσθαι καὶ γράφεσθαι καὶ πλάττεσθαι θεοὺς ἀνθρωποειδεῖς, ὃν τρόπον καὶ πόλεις καὶ ποταμούς Philod.de piet.11 (Arnim ii 1076); ‘est aliquid in illo Stoici dei, iam video; nec cor nec caput habet’ Sen.Apoc.8, 1.

[35]‘Stoici negant habere ullam formam deum’ Lact.de ira18 (Arnim ii 1057).

[36]In connexion with the association of God with the universe we may say (but only in a secondary sense) that God has spherical form; ἰδίαν ἔχει μορφὴν τὸ σφαιροειδές Frag. Herc. p. 250 (Arnim ii 1060); ‘quae vero vita tribuitur isti rotundo deo?’ Cic.N. D.i 10, 24.

[37]πνεῦμα νοερὸν καὶ πυρῶδες, οὐκ ἔχον μὲν μορφήν, μεταβάλλον δ’ εἰς ὃ βούλεται καὶ συνεξομοιούμενον πᾶσιν Aët.plac.i 6, 1.

[38]See above, §242, note 20.

[39]θεὸν νοοῦμεν ζῷον μακάριον καὶ ἄφθαρτον καὶ εὐποιητικὸν ἀνθρώπων Plut.Sto. rep.38, 3. A similar definition is given in Diog. L. vii 147 as indicating the view of the Stoics generally.

[40]‘inter omnes omnium gentium sententia constat; omnibus enim innatum est et in animo quasi insculptum, esse deos’ Cic.N. D.ii 4, 12; ‘nec ulla gens usquam est adeo extra leges moresque proiecta, ut non aliquos deos credat’ Sen.Ep.117, 6.

[41]See above, §158.

[42]οὐ γὰρ πλῆθος ἔχει συνετὴν κρίσιν οὔτε δικαίαν | οὔτε καλήν Cleanthes apud Clem. Al.Strom.v 3 (Arnim i 559).

[43]See below, §294.

[44]‘videmus ceteras opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate extabuisse ... quae [enim] anus tam excors inveniri potest, quae illa quae quondam credebantur apud inferos portenta, extimescat? opinionum enim commenta delet dies’ Cic.N. D.ii 2, 5.

[45]As for instance Cicero does (following Posidonius)N. D.ii 5, 13.

[46]See above, §158.

[47]ἡ τῶν ὅλων φύσις ὑπὸ συγγενοῦς ὀφείλει καταλαμβάνεσθαι τοῦ λόγου Sext.math.ix 93, see §149.

[48]See the next note.

[49]‘si di non sunt, quid esse potest in rerum natura homine melius? in eo enim solo ratio est, qua nihil potest esse praestantius’ Cic.N. D.ii 6, 16.

[50]‘si enim’ inquit [Chrysippus] ‘est aliquid in rerum natura, quod potestas humana efficere non possit; est certe id, quod illud efficit, homine melius. atqui res caelestes ab homine confici non possunt. est igitur id, quo illa conficiuntur, homine melius. id autem quid potius dixeris quam deum?’ib.

[51]‘et tamen ex ipsa hominum sollertia esse aliquam [mundi] mentem, et eam quidem acriorem et divinam, existimare debemus. unde enim haec homo arripuit? ut ait apud Xenophontem Socrates’ib.18.

[52]‘esse autem hominem, qui nihil in omni mundo melius esse quam se putet, insipientis arrogantiae est’ib.16.

[53]See above, §83.

[54]‘placet enim illi [sc. Epicuro] esse deos, quia necesse sit praestantem esse aliquam naturam, qua nihil sit melius’ Cic.N. D.ii 17, 46. See however Mayor’s note.

[55]‘tantum vero ornatum mundi, tantam varietatem pulchritudinemque rerum caelestium ... si non deorum immortalium domicilium putes, nonne plane desipere videare? an ne hoc quidem intellegimus, omnia supera esse meliora, terram autem esse infimam, quam crassissimus circumfundat aer?’ etc. Cic.N. D.ii 6, 17. For the original argument of Chrysippus see Sext.math.ix 86 (Arnim ii 1014).

[56]‘haec ita fieri omnibus inter se concinentibus mundi partibus profecto non possent, nisi ea uno divino et continuato spiritu continerentur’ Cic.N. D.ii 7, 19. Here cf. Sext.math.ix 78 to 85 (Arnim ii 1013).

[57]Cic.N. D.ii 37, 93.

[58]The third in the exposition of Cleanthes: ‘tertiam [causam dixit Cleanthes esse], quae terreret animos fulminibus tempestatibus ... pestilentia terrae motibus’ib.5, 14.

[59]‘quartam causam esse, eamque vel maximam, conversionem caeli’ib.5, 15.

[60]Arnim ii 1019.

[61]‘[non] in hunc furorem omnes mortales consensissent adloquendi surda numina et inefficaces deos, nisi nossemus illorum beneficia’ Sen.Ben.iv 4, 2.

[62]Sext.math.ix 123 (Arnim ii 1017).

[63]ib.133 (Arnim i 152). Pearson (Z. 108) describes the argument as a ‘transparent sophistry’; but at the present time there is a widespread tendency towards its revival; see Höffding,Philosophy of Religion, ch. iii.

[64]Xen.Mem.i 1, 2.

[65]Cic.Div.i 5, 9 and 6, 10.

[66]ib.3, 6; Diog. L. vii 149.

[67]Divination is based upon the συμπάθεια τῶν ὅλων (continuatio coniunctioque naturae), Cic.Div.ii 69, 142. See also Epict.Disc.i 14, and above, §248.

[68]‘[Tuscis] summa est fulgurum persequendorum scientia’ Sen.N. Q.ii 32, 2.

[69]‘non ullo saecula dono | nostra carent maiore deum, quam Delphica sedes | quod siluit’ LucanPhars.v 111-113; cf. 86-96.

[70]Epict.Disc.ii 7, 3 and 4. The Stoic belief in divination is very severely criticized by Zeller: ‘these vagaries show in Stoicism practical interests preponderating over science’Stoics, etc. p. 280. But the belief in μαντική is traced back to Zeno and Cleanthes, who were hardly ‘practical’ men in the sense in which Zeller seems to use the word.

[71]See above, §245.

[72]See above, §209.

[73]Cic.N. D.ii 30, 77.

[74]‘[di immortales] nec volunt obesse nec possunt. natura enim illis mitis et placida est’ Sen.Dial.iv 27, 1; ‘di aequali tenore bona sua per gentes populosque distribuunt, unam potentiam sortiti, prodesse’Ben.vii 31, 4.

[75]‘Faune, Nympharum fugientum amator, | per meos fines et aprica rura | lenis incedas, abeasque parvis | aequus alumnis’ Hor.C.iii 18, 1-4.

[76]‘tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum’ Lucr.R. N.i 102.

[77]‘Does the Zeus at Olympia lift up his brow? No, his look is fixed as becomes him who is ready to say—Irrevocable is my word and shall not fail’ Epict.Disc.ii 8, 26 (quoting from Hom.Il.i 526).

[78]‘sic vestras hallucinationes fero quemadmodum Iuppiter ineptias poetarum, quorum alius illi alas imposuit, alius cornua; alius adulterum illum induxit et abnoctantem, alius saevum in deos, alius iniquum in homines, alius parricidam et regni alieni paternique expugnatorem’ Sen.Dial.vii 26, 6.

[79]This feeling finds expression at Rome as far back as the times of Hannibal; ‘hoc scelesti illi in animum inducunt suum, | Iovem se placare posse donis, hostiis; | et operam et sumptum perdunt’ Plaut.Rud.22 to 24.

[80]‘[Chrysippus] disputat aethera esse eum, quem homines Iovem appellarent’ Cic.N. D.i 15, 40.

[81]‘aer autem, ut Stoici disputant, Iunonis nomine consecratur ... effeminarunt autem eum Iunonique tribuerunt, quod nihil est eo mollius’ib.ii 26, 66.

[82]‘quoniam tenuitate haec elementa paria sunt, dixerunt esse germana’ Serv.ad Verg. Aen.i 47 (Arnim ii 1066).

[83]Rival philosophers in the earlier times, and the church fathers later, concurred in reviling Chrysippus because he extended this principle of interpretation to a ‘disgraceful’ representation found in Argos or Samos, in which Hera receives the divine seed in her mouth; yet Christian antiquity was about to absorb the similar notion of the conception of the Virgin Mary through the ear (‘quae per aurem concepisti’ in an old Latin hymn). Chrysippus of course rightly estimated the absurdity of criticising cosmic processes as if they were breaches of social decency, and by so doing relieved the pious souls of his own day from a real source of distress. See Arnim ii 1071-1074.

[84]Cic.N. D.ii 26, 66.

[85]ib.i 15, 40 and ii 26, 66.

[86]‘Proserpinam, quam frugum semen esse volunt absconditamque quaeri a matre fingunt’ib.

[87]ib.27, 68.

[88]καὶ ὁ χρόνος δὲ τοιοῦτόν τί ἐστι· δαπανᾶται γὰρ ὑπ’ αὐτοῦ τὰ γινόμενα ἐν αὐτῷ CornutusN. D.6. The castration of Uranus by Cronus is thus explained by the Stoics: ‘caelestem naturam, id est igneam, quae per sese omnia gigneret, vacare voluerunt ea parte corporis, quae coniunctione alterius egeret ad procreandum’ Cic.N. D.ii 24, 64.

[89]JustinApol.i 64 (Arnim ii 1096).

[90]Sen.Ben.i 3, 9.

[91]Aët.plac.i 6, 13.

[92]φασὶ δὲ εἶναι καί τινας δαίμονας ἀνθρώπων συμπάθειαν ἔχοντας, ἐπόπτας τῶν ἀνθρωπείων πραγμάτων Diog. L. vii 151.

[93]‘ásya [váruṇasya] spáśo ná ní miṣanti bhūrṇayaḥ’ Rigv. ix 73, 4.

[94]τρὶς γὰρ μυρίοι εἰσὶν ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ | ἀθάνατοι Ζηνὸς φύλακες θνητῶν ἀνθρώπων Hes.Op. et Di.252, 253; see also §33.

[95]‘et alia signa de caelo ad terram accidunt; | qui’st imperator divum atque hominum Iuppiter, | is nos per gentis hic alium alia disparat, | hominum qui facta mores pietatem et fidem | noscamus’ Plaut.Rud.8-12.

[96]καὶ τούτῳ συμφωνεῖ τὸ τοὺς Διοσκούρους ἀγαθούς τινας εἶναι δαίμονας “σωτῆρας εὐσέλμων νεῶν” Sext.math.ix 86 (Arnim ii 1014); ‘clarum Tyndaridae sidus ab infimis | quassas eripiunt aequoribus rates’ Hor.C.iv 8, 31 and 32.

[97]φαύλους δαίμονας ἀπέλιπε Χρύσιππος Plut.def. orac.17.

[98]καθάπερ οἱ περὶ Χρύσιππον οἴονται φιλόσοφοι φαῦλα δαιμόνια περινοστεῖν, οἷς οἱ θεοὶ δημίοις χρῶνται κολασταῖς ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀνοσίους καὶ ἀδίκους ἀνθρώπουςqu. Rom.51.

[99]Arnim ii 1101.

[100]‘Posidonius censet homines somniare, quod plenus aer sit immortalium animorum’ Cic.Div.i 30, 64.

[101]‘Genius, natale comes qui temperat astrum | naturae deus humanae, mortalis in unum | quodque caput’ Hor.Ep.ii 2, 187-189; ‘sepone in praesentia, quae quibusdam placent, uni cuique nostrum paedagogum dari deum, ex eorum numero quos Ovidius ait “de plebe deos”’ Sen.Ep.110, 1; ‘Zeus has placed by every man a guardian, every man’s daemon, to whom he has committed the care of the man; a guardian who never sleeps, is never deceived’ Epict.Disc.i 14, 12. M. Aurelius identifies this daemon with the principate (To himselfv 27).

[102]Aët.plac.i 6, 9 and 15; Cic.N. D.ii 24, 62.

[103]Arnim i 264. The feeling is reflected by Lucan: ‘estne dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aër, | et caelum et virtus? superos quid quaerimus ultra?’Phars.ix 578-9.

[104]‘Varro dicit antiquos Romanos plus annos centum et septuaginta deos sine simulacro coluisse: “quod si adhuc mansisset, castius di observarentur”’ August.Civ. De.iv 31.

[105]‘ne in victimis quidem deorum est honor’ Sen.Ben.i 6, 3.

[106]‘To make libations and to sacrifice and to offer first-fruits according to the custom of our fathers, purely and not meanly nor scantily nor above our ability, is a thing which belongs to all to do’ Epict.Manual31, 5.

[107]‘si conferre volumus nostra cum externis; ceteris rebus aut pares aut etiam inferiores reperiemur, religione, id est cultu deorum, multum superiores’ Cic.N. D.ii 3, 8.

[108]See above, §250.

[109]ὄφρ’ ἂν τιμηθέντες ἀμειβώμεσθά σε τιμῇ, | ὑμνοῦντες τὰ σὰ ἔργα διηνεκές, ὡς ἐπέοικεHymn36, 37.

[110]περὶ τοίνυν τῆς διὰ τ(ῶν μου)σικῶν (τ)οῦ θείου τει(μῆς εἴρη)ται μὲν αὐτάρκως καὶ πρότερον Philod.mus.iv 66 (Arnim iii Diog. 64).

[111]‘cultus autem deorum est optimus idemque castissimus atque sanctissimus plenissimusque pietatis, ut eos semper pura integra incorrupta et mente et voce veneremur’ Cic.N. D.ii 28, 71.

[112]Epict.Disc.i 16, 17.

[113]ib.iii 5, 10.

[114]ib.i 16, 15.

[115]See above, §121.

[116]‘non sunt ad caelum elevandae manus, nec exorandus aedituus, ut nos ad aurem simulacri admittat; prope est a te deus’ Sen.Ep.41, 1.

[117]‘turpissima vota dis insusurrant; si quis admoverit aurem, conticescent’ib.10, 5.

[118]Sen.Dial.x 11, 1.

[119]ib.xi 4, 2.

[120]Ben.ii 14, 5.

[121]ib.vi 38, 1.

[122]Ep.32, 4.

[123]‘etiamnunc optas, quod tibi optavit nutrix tua aut paedagogus aut mater? o quam inimica nobis sunt vota nostrorum!’ Sen.Ep.60, 1.

[124]‘se quisque consulat et in secretum pectoris sui redeat et inspiciat, quid tacitus optaverit. quam multa sunt vota, quae etiam sibi fateri pudet! quam pauca, quae facere coram teste possimus!’Ben.vi 38, 5.

[125]This sentiment we can trace back to the time of Plautus: ‘stulti hau scimus frustra ut simus, quom quid cupienter dari | petimus nobis: quasi quid in rem sit possimus noscere’ PlautusPseud.683-5.

[126]Epict.Disc.ii 16, 42.

[127]Manual8.

[128]Sen.Dial.v 36, 2. He describes his practice with naïve detail: ‘cum sublatum e conspectu lumen est etconticuit uxormoris mei iam conscia, totum diem meum scrutor’ib.3.

[129]Epict.Disc.iii 10, 2 and 3 (Long’s transl.).

[130]‘quomodo sint di colendi, solet praecipi’ Sen.Ep.95, 47.

[131]‘non enim philosophi solum, verum etiam maiores nostri superstitionem a religione separaverunt’ Cic.N. D.ii 28, 71.

[132]‘primus est deorum cultus deos credere, deinde reddere illis maiestatem suam, reddere bonitatem, sine qua nulla maiestas est; scire illos esse, qui praesident mundo’ Sen.Ep.95, 50.

[133]ib.95, 47.

[134]‘vis deos propitiare? bonus esto. satis illos coluit, quisquis imitatus est’ib.95, 50.

[135]‘You must believe that you have been placed in the world to obey them, and to yield to them in everything which happens, and voluntarily to follow it as being accomplished by the wisest intelligence’ Epict.Manual31, 1.

[136]Disc.iii 22, 53 (compare Long’s transl. ii p. 83).

[137]ib.iii 26, 30.

[138]‘sic vive cum hominibus, tanquam deus videat; sic loquere cum deo, tanquam homines audiant’ Sen.Ep.10, 5.

Back to Index Next