Chapter 16

[83]Bohn'sAgricola, p. 382.[84]See historical map.[85]The fullest account of the probable number and constitution of his army, his generals, &c., is to be found in Dierauer, pp. 76et seq.and the numerous notes appended.[86]See map.[87]Erected after the final subjugation of Dacia, probably upon the designs of Apollodorus, who also designed the bridge across the Danube.[88]This is by no means the unanimous view as to the course which was taken by the army, although most are agreed that it was divided into two sections.[89]This must not be confounded with the Iron Gates (sunken rocks) in the Danube. The reader will find all the leading places referred to in our historical map.[90]Nothing certain is known as to the position of Tapæ. By some writers it is said to be identical with Crossfeldt near Thorda; but this hardly agrees with the account of the operations against Decebalus after his first defeat.[91]Dion Cassius, lxviii. 8.[92]Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9.[93]See vignette at the end of this chapter.[94]All these places, along with the lines indicating existing remains of Roman roads, will be found on our map.[95]Full details of games, gladiatorial fights, coins struck, &c., in Dierauer, pp. 105et seq.[96]Those of our readers who desire to follow these superficial outlines of the story, as represented on the column, will do well to inspect the beautiful line engravings of Piranese, without however accepting his interpretations as conclusive.[97]According to certain writers, Transylvania wasDacia mediterranca; the Banate,D. ripensis; and Roumania,D. transalpina; but Smith (Geography, 'Dacia') gives those names to divisions of Mœsia after the withdrawal of the Romans from Dacia; and later historians mate no reference to the divisions. Dicrauer (p. 103) only refers to one or two leading colonies, and Roesler (p. 45) says that Trajan did not subdivide his conquest at all, but that under Antoninus Pius (168a.d.) there existed three non-political divisions:D. Apulensis,D. Porolissensis, andD. malvensis.Gibbon (chap. i. pp. 7 and 8) gives what he calls 'the natural boundaries,' and says the province was about 1,300 miles in circumference.[98]Neigebaur (p. 43) gives a list of twenty-eight towns known (and many doubtful ones) in Trajan's Dacia, built during the Roman occupation. Of these the ruins of some still remain, and on the site of others modern towns have been built, whose names vary but little from the Roman appellations,e.g.Zernes, now Cernetz; Caracalla, Karakal; Castra Severum, Turnu Severunul (where there is an old Roman tower); Ardeiscus, Ardeish or Ardges; Pallada, Berlad; Kallatia, Galatz; Thermæ ad Mediaș, Mehadia.[99]Carra, p. 3.[100]As in the case of Britain; see Smith,Geography, article 'Colonia.'[101]Carra takes his account from Eutropius, who says (Book VIII. cap. 6): 'Trajan, when he conquered Dacia, transferred thither from all parts of the Roman Empire considerable numbers of men to till the fields and live in the towns. For by its long war under Decebalus Dacia had been exhausted of its men.' he says nothing of the 'scum of the towns.' But in Book IX. cap. 15, Eutropius, in speaking of the Roman withdrawal from Dacia under Aurelian, says: 'He took the Romans away from the cities and fields of Dacia, and planted them in the middle of Mœsia.'[102]Smith (Dacia) says it was evacuated between 270 and 275a.d.Neigebaur and other German as well as French writers name years between these two, the edict of Aurelian being dated, it is said, 274a.d.; whilst Roesler (pp. 60-51) believes that the actual withdrawal of the Roman army did not take place until 280a.d.[103]lxviii. 13. He says (after describing the bridge in glowing terms): 'Trajan, fearing lest, when the Ister was frozen, the Romans on the farther bank should be attacked, built it in order to afford an easy passage for the troops; Adrian, on the other hand, apprehensive that the barbarians, after having overcome those who guarded it, would find it an easy means of penetrating into Mœsia, demolished the upper portion of it.'[104]Freeman (General Sketch of European History) says 269-270a.d.[105]Trebellius Pollio. Gibbon sets down the number of Goths slain at 50,000.[106]Vol. ii. p. 17. The other writers here referred to are Pic, Roesler, Paget, Petermann, &c.[107]Ibid.[108]Vol. i. p. 330.[109]SeeAppendix I.[110]The reader will find most of the chief places named in the course of this historical sketch indicated on the historical map, but we have purposely refrained from making repeated references to it, and even, in many cases, to authorities on history, where that would interfere unnecessarily with the continuity of the narrative.[111]Vol. iv. pp. 258-262.[112]Between 453 and 469a.d.according to different writers.[113]Le Sage, Table 8.[114]Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 104.[115]This character is by some writers given to the Wallachs or Roumanians, and Bonfinius (Book IV.) says that their name is derived from certain Greek words indicating their skill in archery.[116]Roesler, p. 234et seq.It is necessary to add that Roesler derives much of his information from Turkish sources. (Appendix, pp. 359-361.) According to one writer, Abu-Ali-Ahmed Ben Omar Ibn-Dasta, thesettledBulgarians were an agricultural people cultivating cereals, in whose villages were mosques, elementary schools, &c. Many, however, were heathens, who prostrated themselves whenever they met an acquaintance.[117]Roesler, p. 156et seq.[118]Roesler, p. 164et seq.[119]Vol. i. p. 20. Hallam says, in a noteloc. cit.: 'In Italy they inspired such terror that a mass was composed especially deprecating this calamity, "Ab Ungarorum nos defendas jaculis."'[120]E. Duller,Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, p. 108. Leipzig: Wigand. 1840.[121]During their passage across the Carpathians the Hungarians are said to have encountered and reduced to submission a number of petty chiefs and tribes, believed by certain writers to have been the descendants of Daco-Romans who had settled in those mountains many centuries previously. Amongst them 'Dukes' Gellius or Julius, Claudius, and Mariotus are mentioned. The chronicler of these events is known as the 'Anonymous Notary of King Bela' of Hungary, and his narrative is adopted by those modern writers who hold the view that the early princes of Wallachia descended from the Carpathians, whilst other writers, and notably Roesler, who denies that theory, throw discredit upon the whole story, and consider the writings of the 'anonymous notary' a fabrication. The bias exhibited by the different historians makes it impossible to arrive at any just conclusion on the subject.[122]Modern French and German writers called them Petschenigues and Petschenegen.[123]For further details concerning the Patzinakitai and Wallachs the student must consult the pages of Roesler, Pic, Engel, Lauriani, &c.[124]'Die Menschen, die noch jetzt fast römisch Muster tragen,Zwar schlecht, doch witzig sind, viel denken, wenig sagen.'[125]Pic (p. 64) says the Roumanian Wallachs were first referred to in 970, and (p. 113) first mentioned north of the Danube in 1222.[126]He calls himself 'Calojohannes Imperator Blacorum et Bulgarorum,' which Lauriani translates 'Kaiser derRomänenund Bulgaren,' Emperor of the Roumanians, &c. In this and the preceding letter the reader has illustrations of the bias which weakens the evidence of alleged facts in Roumanian history. Those writers who are unwilling to concede Roman descent to the people make no mention of such expressions as that used by Innocent concerning their ancestry, whilst the patriotic native historians use license in translation in order to improve their position.[127]In the Bull they are called 'Imperatores totius Bulgariæ,' which Lauriani (p. 56) unfairly translates 'Die Kaiser von ganz Bulgarien und Romänien' (Emperors of all Bulgariaand Roumania!).[128]For the details of this controversy the reader is referred to the recently published pages of Roesler and Pic, the first an Austrian and the second a Slav writer.[129]His full title was 'Mircea, D.G. Voivode of Wallachia, Duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Count of Severin, Despot of the lands of Dobrudscha and Silistria,' and, making allowance for the exaggerations of a conqueror, it is clear that he must have ruled over an extended territory.[130]The substance of this treaty, which was reaffirmed in later ones, will be found in Appendix II., with some data concerning its history, for which, along with much other valuable information, we are indebted to Prince Jon Ghika, the Roumanian Ambassador at St. James's, and to Mr. White, our own Minister at Bucarest.[131]The word 'boyard' originally meant soldier or warrior.[132]One of his corps of cavalry were called 'Scutelnici' (or substitutes), a term which we shall find applied to government serfs later on; and Vaillant (vol. i. p. 185) says the term 'scutage' in England was derived from the same source (scutum, a shield).[133]The two crowns had been united under him.[134]To show what uncertainty hangs over the history of this man, and in fact of the whole period, it may be mentioned that Neigebaur and other writers make this treaty to have been signed between Vlad II. and Mohammed III., who reigned 135 years later, whilst French writers state that it was between Vlad V. and Mohammed II.; but they all agreed as to the date 1460. Henke calls him Vlad III. He was universally named the Impaler in consequence of a practice which is well known to our readers through the so-called Bulgarian atrocities. A sharpened pole was forced into the body of the victim, and the other end was then driven into the earth, the unfortunate man, woman, or child being left to writhe in agony until relieved by death.[135]For the terms of this treaty seeAppendix II.[136]Called also Nyagor, Negoje, Nyagoe.[137]Paget, vol. ii. p. 8.[138]Teutschländer, from whose excellent little treatise,Michael der Tapfere(Wien, C. Gräser, 1879), these details are taken, mentions many customs as existing in the time of Michael which were in all probability only introduced at a later period. The tobacco-tax is clearly one of them.[139]The reader will find full accounts of the officials and their various duties, as well as a description of the investiture of the princes, in Raicevich, p. 62. In Wilkinson, p. 55, he will find that in his day there had been a great multiplication of the offices; there were second and third Logothets, second and third Vestiars, &c.[140]Reissenberger, p. 39, in part quoting Engel.[141]Some modern Roumanian historians affirm that Mircea already had a regular army, but Roesler and others treat the assertion with ridicule. As to Michael, the reader will judge for himself whether or not it would have been possible to accomplish what he did without a disciplined force.[142]Siebenbürgen was so called from seven forts erected there.[143]Teutschländer, p. 201.[144]According to Vaillant and others there were two officers each with 300 men, and Michael ran his sword through one of the officers, but before he could withdraw it the other, called Bory, struck him down with his halberd.[145]Vaillant (chronological table, vol. ii. p. 444) gives nineteen distinct princes, some of whom reigned twice in Wallachia, and twenty-eight, of whom one reigned three times in Moldavia, between 1601 and 1714. His dates and names must not, however, be regarded as authoritative.[146]The reader who is interested in this subject will find a concise history of the following families in Carra, namely, Cantemir (said by some to be of Tartar origin), Ghika, Petreczeicus, Duca, Cantacuzene, Brancovano, Mavrocordato.[147]A lion, crown, or ecu, of gold was worth about 4s.8d., of silver 2s.8d.[148]An interesting reference to his good deeds will be found in the description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges in the first part of this work.[149]The carelessness of the Roumanian chroniclers is simply intolerable. Vaillant, vol. ii. p. 88, says that Serban was poisoned on October 19, 1688; at p. 91 he says Constantine Preda, his successor, began to reign 1687; and in his chronology, p. 445, he says 1688. Such discrepancies constantly recur. Wilkinson makes the successor of Serban, Constantine Brancovano, the Voivode who secretly aided the Germans at Vienna, and places the event after 1695. He says the Voivode was probably bribed by the German Emperor to remain neutral. The siege of Vienna was in 1693.[150]Brancovano is also called Constantine Bassarab and Constantine Preda.[151]The following story is related of the conduct of the Russians whilst they were encamped before Jassy, during the early part of the campaign. It appears that Peter and his generals were invited to a banquet by the Prince, and, having drunk freely, hosts and guests lay scattered promiscuously about the floor. The Russians were the first to recover consciousness, and when their eyes fell upon the gold-laced boots of the boyards, the desire to possess them was so irresistible that they took advantage of the helpless condition of their hosts to perpetrate a common theft. Drawing them from their feet, they made off with the boots to their tents, leaving their own weather-worn chaussure in exchange.[152]Wilkinson (p. 40) says that in his day a descendant of the grandson of Brancovano was living in Wallachia in great state, and was considered one of the wealthiest boyards; and there is still a family assuming the title of Prince Bassaraba de Brancovan. SeeGotha Almanack, 1881, p. 225.[153]Although Nicholas Mavrocordato is chiefly referred to as the first Phanariote Prince of Wallachia, in 1716, a comparison of the authorities (Engel, Wilkinson, Neigebaur, &c.) shows that he had already ruled in Moldavia since 1712. Vaillant is, as usual, vague, and supplies the place of precise facts by abundant rhetoric.[154]3 Henry VII. cap. 1, and 21 Henry VIII. cap. 20.[155]Voda, or Domnu (Dominus), was the Roumanian designation for the prince, and Hospodar was a title of Slavonic or Russian origin (Russian, Gospodin = Lord).[156]P. 46.[157]The most authentic work on the Phanariotes is that of Marc. Philippe Zallony (Marseilles, Ant. Ricard, April 1824). That author calls himself 'the medical attendant, of several Fanariote hospodars,' and his account of the princes and their rule is sufficiently humiliating without the exaggerations and embellishments of one or two subsequent French writers. Wilkinson, whose work we have quoted, and who was 'British Consul Resident,' in 1820, at 'Bukorest,' as it was then called (he says, after one Bukor who owned the village four hundred years previously), gives a good deal of information on the same subject.[158]Zallony.[159]Vaillant, at vol. ii, pp. 219-220 and 224-226, gives some interesting details of receipts and expenditure. In one place (p. 225) he gives a list of 'presents paid by the principality of Moldavia.' The amounts arc stated in piastres, which he says were then worth 2 fr. 50 c. One item is 'secret presents at Constantinople 250,000 piastres,' whereas the tribute was only 65,000! The list appears to include the whole expenses of the prince and princess and some military and State expenditure, the total being 1,162,267 piastres, or, according to Vaillant, about 116,200l., an enormous sum in those days (1769).[160]In Vaillant's list referred to, the charge for the dresses of the princess is put down at 22,908 piastres, or 2,290l., against 36,000 piastres, or 3,600l., the entire expenses of the palace. The list shows that the prince kept many Turkish soldiers, musicians, &c., in his service, and had borrowed large sums in Constantinople before acquiring the hospodarship, as there is an item of 68,620 piastres for interest thereon.[161]This phase in the Phanariote rule still rests as a blight upon Roumanian society, and the causes of the laxity of the marriage tie and of divorces are to a large extent the same as formerly. Young men of the upper classes who have been nurtured in affluence find themselves unable to indulge in the luxuries to which they have been accustomed upon their limited incomes. They therefore frequently marry women who are much older than themselves, but are possessed of large pecuniary means. Neither cares for the other; they go their own ways, with the usual unfortunate results. If the reader refers to the statistics of the country, he will find that in 1880 there were 3,891 divorce causes set down for trial, and that the number of divorces legally granted or judged for the six years previously varied from 760 to 929 annually.[162]Zallony tells us that amongst the modern Greek families the Mavrocordatos and Mavrojeni originally came from the Isle of Miconos (Archipelago); Ghika is of Albanian origin; Racoviça and Manolvoda, Asia Minor; Ypsilanti and Morousy, Trebizonde; Soutzo, Bulgaria; Caragia, Ragusa Canzerli, Constantinople, &c.[163]This is not the Gregory Ghika already referred to. Members of the different families were distinguished by the affix I. II. III. &c.[164]Who this 'Sir Francis' was, we have not been able to ascertain.[165]P. 44.[166]Neigebaur (pp. 327 et seq.) gives a long list of important works published in the Principalities up to his time (1854), and amongst them will be found a large number either composed or published by Heliad on various subjects in theology, philology, grammar, history, mathematics, and medicine, besides original poems, translations, and dramas.[167]Regnault says (p. 437): 'Twice in three weeks the provisional government had fallen, first through an audaciouscoup de main, then through a spontaneous act of weakness. Twice the people had reinstated it, setting a resolute example for the conduct of their leaders. It is worth noting that this nation, new to political life of which the birth is manifested by courage and wisdom, retired before its leaders when they triumphed, raised them when they fell, giving alternate evidences of energy and moderation.'[168]P. 183.[169]As the event is comparatively recent, we have considered it desirable to suppress two or three names of persons who may be still living, and whose connection with the revolution is of no moment.[170]Thatwouldhave been cowardly.—Author.[171]One of his mistresses, who was with him.[172]The Conservatives were overthrown in 1875, and although there are at present nominally three parties in the State there can hardly be said to be an opposition. When the author was in Roumania, in the autumn of 1881, the two Liberal chiefs were John Bratiano, President of the Council, and C.A. Rosetti, who has held more than one portfolio. We shall speak of these statesmen in the sequel. The Liberal party in the Chamber of Deputies numbers about one hundred and twenty; whilst the Conservatives, led by MM. Catargi, Labovari, and Maiorescu, and the Radicals, with MM. Vernesco and Nicolas Jonesco, number together only about thirty-five members. In the Senate, out of seventy-six members only about sixteen or eighteen are in opposition. This is not altogether to be regretted; such disparities do not last long, and whilst on the one hand criticism of the mistakes or misconduct of Government officials (and more particularly against sub-officials, who are often charged with grave offences) is now confined chiefly to the press, on the other hand a little constitutional despotism is very much needed, not only to correct such abuses promptly, but also to hasten the necessary reforms and to ameliorate the condition of the country. This is the result of personal observation and contact with official life, and not a mere speculative opinion.[173]The critics of her conduct during and immediately after the close of the war were more bitter than at the present day, charging her with perfidy of the worst kind, and predicting that she would become a vassal state of Russia. See, amongst others, Ollier,History of Russo-Turkish War, vol. i. p. 537.[174]These details are from Von Wittinghausen's work on Roumania, from a military point of view (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn).[175]The army organization has progressed rapidly since the war of complete liberation, and it is estimated that in 1884 the total forces of Roumania, regular militia, and Landsturm, will exceed 215,000 men. Full information will be found in Von Wittinghausen, Obedenare and in theGotha Almanack, 1881, p. 903, where the present state of the forces is given in detail.[176]Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 73.[177]There are two monuments, one at Simnitza and the other at Sistova, which are visible to the traveller as he passes up or down the river. The first indicates the spot where the Russians embarked, whilst the last is a handsome memorial to the slain.[178]These operations are graphically described in the interesting work of Col. Fife Cookson,With the Armies of the Balkans, Cassell, 1880; in theDaily News War Correspondence, Macmillan, 1878; and in Ollier'sHistory of the Russo-Turkish War, Cassell.[179]According to Col. Fife Cookson the Bulgarians, during this war, were guilty of atrocities as deep-dyed as any that had previously caused such indignation in Europe; but he also says (p. 23), 'In this war armed Bulgarians resisting the Turks were looked upon as rebels, and received no quarter.'[180]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 131-132.[181]War Correspondence, p. 82.[182]Ibid.p. 390.[183]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 441-442. Cassell (Ollier), pp. 404-405, where a plan of the Loftcha struggle is given.[184]It is not clear what these were; probably the tenth and thirtieth divisions, composing the fourth corps. CompareDaily News War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 443 and 444.[185]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 482-483.[186]Ibid.p. 444.[187]Daily War Correspondence,vol. i. p. 485.[188]Ibid.p. 487.[189]Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 491.[190]Ibid.p. 495.[191]Ibid.p. 496.[192]Daily News Correspondence, vol. ii. p. 153.[193]Ozanne, p. 226.[194]The first three verses of the dedication inRumänische Dichtungen, by Carmen Sylva (the Queen'snom de plume), Leipzig, W. Friedrich, 1881. Lest our halting verse should prejudice the illustrious authoress, we append the original for those who know German:—'Du Rebenland, du grüner Wald,Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,Ich bin entflohn für immer!'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,Dann hör' ich's singen, rauschen,Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',Den Wind die Segel bauschen.'Dass ich die schönste Heimath hab'In deutschen Gau'n besessen,Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum GrabNun nimmer kann vergessen.'

[83]Bohn'sAgricola, p. 382.

[84]See historical map.

[85]The fullest account of the probable number and constitution of his army, his generals, &c., is to be found in Dierauer, pp. 76et seq.and the numerous notes appended.

[86]See map.

[87]Erected after the final subjugation of Dacia, probably upon the designs of Apollodorus, who also designed the bridge across the Danube.

[88]This is by no means the unanimous view as to the course which was taken by the army, although most are agreed that it was divided into two sections.

[89]This must not be confounded with the Iron Gates (sunken rocks) in the Danube. The reader will find all the leading places referred to in our historical map.

[90]Nothing certain is known as to the position of Tapæ. By some writers it is said to be identical with Crossfeldt near Thorda; but this hardly agrees with the account of the operations against Decebalus after his first defeat.

[91]Dion Cassius, lxviii. 8.

[92]Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9.

[93]See vignette at the end of this chapter.

[94]All these places, along with the lines indicating existing remains of Roman roads, will be found on our map.

[95]Full details of games, gladiatorial fights, coins struck, &c., in Dierauer, pp. 105et seq.

[96]Those of our readers who desire to follow these superficial outlines of the story, as represented on the column, will do well to inspect the beautiful line engravings of Piranese, without however accepting his interpretations as conclusive.

[97]According to certain writers, Transylvania wasDacia mediterranca; the Banate,D. ripensis; and Roumania,D. transalpina; but Smith (Geography, 'Dacia') gives those names to divisions of Mœsia after the withdrawal of the Romans from Dacia; and later historians mate no reference to the divisions. Dicrauer (p. 103) only refers to one or two leading colonies, and Roesler (p. 45) says that Trajan did not subdivide his conquest at all, but that under Antoninus Pius (168a.d.) there existed three non-political divisions:D. Apulensis,D. Porolissensis, andD. malvensis.Gibbon (chap. i. pp. 7 and 8) gives what he calls 'the natural boundaries,' and says the province was about 1,300 miles in circumference.

[98]Neigebaur (p. 43) gives a list of twenty-eight towns known (and many doubtful ones) in Trajan's Dacia, built during the Roman occupation. Of these the ruins of some still remain, and on the site of others modern towns have been built, whose names vary but little from the Roman appellations,e.g.Zernes, now Cernetz; Caracalla, Karakal; Castra Severum, Turnu Severunul (where there is an old Roman tower); Ardeiscus, Ardeish or Ardges; Pallada, Berlad; Kallatia, Galatz; Thermæ ad Mediaș, Mehadia.

[99]Carra, p. 3.

[100]As in the case of Britain; see Smith,Geography, article 'Colonia.'

[101]Carra takes his account from Eutropius, who says (Book VIII. cap. 6): 'Trajan, when he conquered Dacia, transferred thither from all parts of the Roman Empire considerable numbers of men to till the fields and live in the towns. For by its long war under Decebalus Dacia had been exhausted of its men.' he says nothing of the 'scum of the towns.' But in Book IX. cap. 15, Eutropius, in speaking of the Roman withdrawal from Dacia under Aurelian, says: 'He took the Romans away from the cities and fields of Dacia, and planted them in the middle of Mœsia.'

[102]Smith (Dacia) says it was evacuated between 270 and 275a.d.Neigebaur and other German as well as French writers name years between these two, the edict of Aurelian being dated, it is said, 274a.d.; whilst Roesler (pp. 60-51) believes that the actual withdrawal of the Roman army did not take place until 280a.d.

[103]lxviii. 13. He says (after describing the bridge in glowing terms): 'Trajan, fearing lest, when the Ister was frozen, the Romans on the farther bank should be attacked, built it in order to afford an easy passage for the troops; Adrian, on the other hand, apprehensive that the barbarians, after having overcome those who guarded it, would find it an easy means of penetrating into Mœsia, demolished the upper portion of it.'

[104]Freeman (General Sketch of European History) says 269-270a.d.

[105]Trebellius Pollio. Gibbon sets down the number of Goths slain at 50,000.

[106]Vol. ii. p. 17. The other writers here referred to are Pic, Roesler, Paget, Petermann, &c.

[107]Ibid.

[108]Vol. i. p. 330.

[109]SeeAppendix I.

[110]The reader will find most of the chief places named in the course of this historical sketch indicated on the historical map, but we have purposely refrained from making repeated references to it, and even, in many cases, to authorities on history, where that would interfere unnecessarily with the continuity of the narrative.

[111]Vol. iv. pp. 258-262.

[112]Between 453 and 469a.d.according to different writers.

[113]Le Sage, Table 8.

[114]Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 104.

[115]This character is by some writers given to the Wallachs or Roumanians, and Bonfinius (Book IV.) says that their name is derived from certain Greek words indicating their skill in archery.

[116]Roesler, p. 234et seq.It is necessary to add that Roesler derives much of his information from Turkish sources. (Appendix, pp. 359-361.) According to one writer, Abu-Ali-Ahmed Ben Omar Ibn-Dasta, thesettledBulgarians were an agricultural people cultivating cereals, in whose villages were mosques, elementary schools, &c. Many, however, were heathens, who prostrated themselves whenever they met an acquaintance.

[117]Roesler, p. 156et seq.

[118]Roesler, p. 164et seq.

[119]Vol. i. p. 20. Hallam says, in a noteloc. cit.: 'In Italy they inspired such terror that a mass was composed especially deprecating this calamity, "Ab Ungarorum nos defendas jaculis."'

[120]E. Duller,Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, p. 108. Leipzig: Wigand. 1840.

[121]During their passage across the Carpathians the Hungarians are said to have encountered and reduced to submission a number of petty chiefs and tribes, believed by certain writers to have been the descendants of Daco-Romans who had settled in those mountains many centuries previously. Amongst them 'Dukes' Gellius or Julius, Claudius, and Mariotus are mentioned. The chronicler of these events is known as the 'Anonymous Notary of King Bela' of Hungary, and his narrative is adopted by those modern writers who hold the view that the early princes of Wallachia descended from the Carpathians, whilst other writers, and notably Roesler, who denies that theory, throw discredit upon the whole story, and consider the writings of the 'anonymous notary' a fabrication. The bias exhibited by the different historians makes it impossible to arrive at any just conclusion on the subject.

[122]Modern French and German writers called them Petschenigues and Petschenegen.

[123]For further details concerning the Patzinakitai and Wallachs the student must consult the pages of Roesler, Pic, Engel, Lauriani, &c.

[124]'Die Menschen, die noch jetzt fast römisch Muster tragen,Zwar schlecht, doch witzig sind, viel denken, wenig sagen.'

[124]

'Die Menschen, die noch jetzt fast römisch Muster tragen,Zwar schlecht, doch witzig sind, viel denken, wenig sagen.'

[125]Pic (p. 64) says the Roumanian Wallachs were first referred to in 970, and (p. 113) first mentioned north of the Danube in 1222.

[126]He calls himself 'Calojohannes Imperator Blacorum et Bulgarorum,' which Lauriani translates 'Kaiser derRomänenund Bulgaren,' Emperor of the Roumanians, &c. In this and the preceding letter the reader has illustrations of the bias which weakens the evidence of alleged facts in Roumanian history. Those writers who are unwilling to concede Roman descent to the people make no mention of such expressions as that used by Innocent concerning their ancestry, whilst the patriotic native historians use license in translation in order to improve their position.

[127]In the Bull they are called 'Imperatores totius Bulgariæ,' which Lauriani (p. 56) unfairly translates 'Die Kaiser von ganz Bulgarien und Romänien' (Emperors of all Bulgariaand Roumania!).

[128]For the details of this controversy the reader is referred to the recently published pages of Roesler and Pic, the first an Austrian and the second a Slav writer.

[129]His full title was 'Mircea, D.G. Voivode of Wallachia, Duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Count of Severin, Despot of the lands of Dobrudscha and Silistria,' and, making allowance for the exaggerations of a conqueror, it is clear that he must have ruled over an extended territory.

[130]The substance of this treaty, which was reaffirmed in later ones, will be found in Appendix II., with some data concerning its history, for which, along with much other valuable information, we are indebted to Prince Jon Ghika, the Roumanian Ambassador at St. James's, and to Mr. White, our own Minister at Bucarest.

[131]The word 'boyard' originally meant soldier or warrior.

[132]One of his corps of cavalry were called 'Scutelnici' (or substitutes), a term which we shall find applied to government serfs later on; and Vaillant (vol. i. p. 185) says the term 'scutage' in England was derived from the same source (scutum, a shield).

[133]The two crowns had been united under him.

[134]To show what uncertainty hangs over the history of this man, and in fact of the whole period, it may be mentioned that Neigebaur and other writers make this treaty to have been signed between Vlad II. and Mohammed III., who reigned 135 years later, whilst French writers state that it was between Vlad V. and Mohammed II.; but they all agreed as to the date 1460. Henke calls him Vlad III. He was universally named the Impaler in consequence of a practice which is well known to our readers through the so-called Bulgarian atrocities. A sharpened pole was forced into the body of the victim, and the other end was then driven into the earth, the unfortunate man, woman, or child being left to writhe in agony until relieved by death.

[135]For the terms of this treaty seeAppendix II.

[136]Called also Nyagor, Negoje, Nyagoe.

[137]Paget, vol. ii. p. 8.

[138]Teutschländer, from whose excellent little treatise,Michael der Tapfere(Wien, C. Gräser, 1879), these details are taken, mentions many customs as existing in the time of Michael which were in all probability only introduced at a later period. The tobacco-tax is clearly one of them.

[139]The reader will find full accounts of the officials and their various duties, as well as a description of the investiture of the princes, in Raicevich, p. 62. In Wilkinson, p. 55, he will find that in his day there had been a great multiplication of the offices; there were second and third Logothets, second and third Vestiars, &c.

[140]Reissenberger, p. 39, in part quoting Engel.

[141]Some modern Roumanian historians affirm that Mircea already had a regular army, but Roesler and others treat the assertion with ridicule. As to Michael, the reader will judge for himself whether or not it would have been possible to accomplish what he did without a disciplined force.

[142]Siebenbürgen was so called from seven forts erected there.

[143]Teutschländer, p. 201.

[144]According to Vaillant and others there were two officers each with 300 men, and Michael ran his sword through one of the officers, but before he could withdraw it the other, called Bory, struck him down with his halberd.

[145]Vaillant (chronological table, vol. ii. p. 444) gives nineteen distinct princes, some of whom reigned twice in Wallachia, and twenty-eight, of whom one reigned three times in Moldavia, between 1601 and 1714. His dates and names must not, however, be regarded as authoritative.

[146]The reader who is interested in this subject will find a concise history of the following families in Carra, namely, Cantemir (said by some to be of Tartar origin), Ghika, Petreczeicus, Duca, Cantacuzene, Brancovano, Mavrocordato.

[147]A lion, crown, or ecu, of gold was worth about 4s.8d., of silver 2s.8d.

[148]An interesting reference to his good deeds will be found in the description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges in the first part of this work.

[149]The carelessness of the Roumanian chroniclers is simply intolerable. Vaillant, vol. ii. p. 88, says that Serban was poisoned on October 19, 1688; at p. 91 he says Constantine Preda, his successor, began to reign 1687; and in his chronology, p. 445, he says 1688. Such discrepancies constantly recur. Wilkinson makes the successor of Serban, Constantine Brancovano, the Voivode who secretly aided the Germans at Vienna, and places the event after 1695. He says the Voivode was probably bribed by the German Emperor to remain neutral. The siege of Vienna was in 1693.

[150]Brancovano is also called Constantine Bassarab and Constantine Preda.

[151]The following story is related of the conduct of the Russians whilst they were encamped before Jassy, during the early part of the campaign. It appears that Peter and his generals were invited to a banquet by the Prince, and, having drunk freely, hosts and guests lay scattered promiscuously about the floor. The Russians were the first to recover consciousness, and when their eyes fell upon the gold-laced boots of the boyards, the desire to possess them was so irresistible that they took advantage of the helpless condition of their hosts to perpetrate a common theft. Drawing them from their feet, they made off with the boots to their tents, leaving their own weather-worn chaussure in exchange.

[152]Wilkinson (p. 40) says that in his day a descendant of the grandson of Brancovano was living in Wallachia in great state, and was considered one of the wealthiest boyards; and there is still a family assuming the title of Prince Bassaraba de Brancovan. SeeGotha Almanack, 1881, p. 225.

[153]Although Nicholas Mavrocordato is chiefly referred to as the first Phanariote Prince of Wallachia, in 1716, a comparison of the authorities (Engel, Wilkinson, Neigebaur, &c.) shows that he had already ruled in Moldavia since 1712. Vaillant is, as usual, vague, and supplies the place of precise facts by abundant rhetoric.

[154]3 Henry VII. cap. 1, and 21 Henry VIII. cap. 20.

[155]Voda, or Domnu (Dominus), was the Roumanian designation for the prince, and Hospodar was a title of Slavonic or Russian origin (Russian, Gospodin = Lord).

[156]P. 46.

[157]The most authentic work on the Phanariotes is that of Marc. Philippe Zallony (Marseilles, Ant. Ricard, April 1824). That author calls himself 'the medical attendant, of several Fanariote hospodars,' and his account of the princes and their rule is sufficiently humiliating without the exaggerations and embellishments of one or two subsequent French writers. Wilkinson, whose work we have quoted, and who was 'British Consul Resident,' in 1820, at 'Bukorest,' as it was then called (he says, after one Bukor who owned the village four hundred years previously), gives a good deal of information on the same subject.

[158]Zallony.

[159]Vaillant, at vol. ii, pp. 219-220 and 224-226, gives some interesting details of receipts and expenditure. In one place (p. 225) he gives a list of 'presents paid by the principality of Moldavia.' The amounts arc stated in piastres, which he says were then worth 2 fr. 50 c. One item is 'secret presents at Constantinople 250,000 piastres,' whereas the tribute was only 65,000! The list appears to include the whole expenses of the prince and princess and some military and State expenditure, the total being 1,162,267 piastres, or, according to Vaillant, about 116,200l., an enormous sum in those days (1769).

[160]In Vaillant's list referred to, the charge for the dresses of the princess is put down at 22,908 piastres, or 2,290l., against 36,000 piastres, or 3,600l., the entire expenses of the palace. The list shows that the prince kept many Turkish soldiers, musicians, &c., in his service, and had borrowed large sums in Constantinople before acquiring the hospodarship, as there is an item of 68,620 piastres for interest thereon.

[161]This phase in the Phanariote rule still rests as a blight upon Roumanian society, and the causes of the laxity of the marriage tie and of divorces are to a large extent the same as formerly. Young men of the upper classes who have been nurtured in affluence find themselves unable to indulge in the luxuries to which they have been accustomed upon their limited incomes. They therefore frequently marry women who are much older than themselves, but are possessed of large pecuniary means. Neither cares for the other; they go their own ways, with the usual unfortunate results. If the reader refers to the statistics of the country, he will find that in 1880 there were 3,891 divorce causes set down for trial, and that the number of divorces legally granted or judged for the six years previously varied from 760 to 929 annually.

[162]Zallony tells us that amongst the modern Greek families the Mavrocordatos and Mavrojeni originally came from the Isle of Miconos (Archipelago); Ghika is of Albanian origin; Racoviça and Manolvoda, Asia Minor; Ypsilanti and Morousy, Trebizonde; Soutzo, Bulgaria; Caragia, Ragusa Canzerli, Constantinople, &c.

[163]This is not the Gregory Ghika already referred to. Members of the different families were distinguished by the affix I. II. III. &c.

[164]Who this 'Sir Francis' was, we have not been able to ascertain.

[165]P. 44.

[166]Neigebaur (pp. 327 et seq.) gives a long list of important works published in the Principalities up to his time (1854), and amongst them will be found a large number either composed or published by Heliad on various subjects in theology, philology, grammar, history, mathematics, and medicine, besides original poems, translations, and dramas.

[167]Regnault says (p. 437): 'Twice in three weeks the provisional government had fallen, first through an audaciouscoup de main, then through a spontaneous act of weakness. Twice the people had reinstated it, setting a resolute example for the conduct of their leaders. It is worth noting that this nation, new to political life of which the birth is manifested by courage and wisdom, retired before its leaders when they triumphed, raised them when they fell, giving alternate evidences of energy and moderation.'

[168]P. 183.

[169]As the event is comparatively recent, we have considered it desirable to suppress two or three names of persons who may be still living, and whose connection with the revolution is of no moment.

[170]Thatwouldhave been cowardly.—Author.

[171]One of his mistresses, who was with him.

[172]The Conservatives were overthrown in 1875, and although there are at present nominally three parties in the State there can hardly be said to be an opposition. When the author was in Roumania, in the autumn of 1881, the two Liberal chiefs were John Bratiano, President of the Council, and C.A. Rosetti, who has held more than one portfolio. We shall speak of these statesmen in the sequel. The Liberal party in the Chamber of Deputies numbers about one hundred and twenty; whilst the Conservatives, led by MM. Catargi, Labovari, and Maiorescu, and the Radicals, with MM. Vernesco and Nicolas Jonesco, number together only about thirty-five members. In the Senate, out of seventy-six members only about sixteen or eighteen are in opposition. This is not altogether to be regretted; such disparities do not last long, and whilst on the one hand criticism of the mistakes or misconduct of Government officials (and more particularly against sub-officials, who are often charged with grave offences) is now confined chiefly to the press, on the other hand a little constitutional despotism is very much needed, not only to correct such abuses promptly, but also to hasten the necessary reforms and to ameliorate the condition of the country. This is the result of personal observation and contact with official life, and not a mere speculative opinion.

[173]The critics of her conduct during and immediately after the close of the war were more bitter than at the present day, charging her with perfidy of the worst kind, and predicting that she would become a vassal state of Russia. See, amongst others, Ollier,History of Russo-Turkish War, vol. i. p. 537.

[174]These details are from Von Wittinghausen's work on Roumania, from a military point of view (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn).

[175]The army organization has progressed rapidly since the war of complete liberation, and it is estimated that in 1884 the total forces of Roumania, regular militia, and Landsturm, will exceed 215,000 men. Full information will be found in Von Wittinghausen, Obedenare and in theGotha Almanack, 1881, p. 903, where the present state of the forces is given in detail.

[176]Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 73.

[177]There are two monuments, one at Simnitza and the other at Sistova, which are visible to the traveller as he passes up or down the river. The first indicates the spot where the Russians embarked, whilst the last is a handsome memorial to the slain.

[178]These operations are graphically described in the interesting work of Col. Fife Cookson,With the Armies of the Balkans, Cassell, 1880; in theDaily News War Correspondence, Macmillan, 1878; and in Ollier'sHistory of the Russo-Turkish War, Cassell.

[179]According to Col. Fife Cookson the Bulgarians, during this war, were guilty of atrocities as deep-dyed as any that had previously caused such indignation in Europe; but he also says (p. 23), 'In this war armed Bulgarians resisting the Turks were looked upon as rebels, and received no quarter.'

[180]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 131-132.

[181]War Correspondence, p. 82.

[182]Ibid.p. 390.

[183]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 441-442. Cassell (Ollier), pp. 404-405, where a plan of the Loftcha struggle is given.

[184]It is not clear what these were; probably the tenth and thirtieth divisions, composing the fourth corps. CompareDaily News War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 443 and 444.

[185]War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 482-483.

[186]Ibid.p. 444.

[187]Daily War Correspondence,vol. i. p. 485.

[188]Ibid.p. 487.

[189]Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 491.

[190]Ibid.p. 495.

[191]Ibid.p. 496.

[192]Daily News Correspondence, vol. ii. p. 153.

[193]Ozanne, p. 226.

[194]The first three verses of the dedication inRumänische Dichtungen, by Carmen Sylva (the Queen'snom de plume), Leipzig, W. Friedrich, 1881. Lest our halting verse should prejudice the illustrious authoress, we append the original for those who know German:—'Du Rebenland, du grüner Wald,Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,Ich bin entflohn für immer!'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,Dann hör' ich's singen, rauschen,Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',Den Wind die Segel bauschen.'Dass ich die schönste Heimath hab'In deutschen Gau'n besessen,Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum GrabNun nimmer kann vergessen.'

'Du Rebenland, du grüner Wald,Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,Ich bin entflohn für immer!'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,Dann hör' ich's singen, rauschen,Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',Den Wind die Segel bauschen.'Dass ich die schönste Heimath hab'In deutschen Gau'n besessen,Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum GrabNun nimmer kann vergessen.'

'Du Rebenland, du grüner Wald,Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,Ich bin entflohn für immer!

'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,Dann hör' ich's singen, rauschen,Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',Den Wind die Segel bauschen.

'Dass ich die schönste Heimath hab'In deutschen Gau'n besessen,Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum GrabNun nimmer kann vergessen.'

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