CHAPTER XPHONOLOGY AND GRAMMARThe average educated Englishman has no accurate conception of what a dialect really is, beyond a vague notion that the term covers a mass of barbarisms, corruptions, and mispronunciations of the King’s English, devoid of any order or system, and used by the illiterate rustic in a haphazard fashion with no regard to consistency. But as we have already seen in Chapter VII, in very many cases it is the standard language which contains the anomalies and the corruptions, whilst the correct forms have been handed down in the dialects where systematic sound-laws and exact grammatical rules have been regularly developed and carried out unhampered by the arbitrary rules of fashion, or the regulations of a stereotyped spelling 400 years behind the pronunciation. As Max Müller puts it: ‘the real and natural life of language is in its dialects,’The Science of Language,vol. i, p. 55.A dialect may be defined as one of the subordinate forms or varieties of a language arising from local peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiom, or as that form or idiom of a language peculiar to a limited region or people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole people. Hitherto we have been concerned chiefly with the second of these three characteristics of a dialect, namely vocabulary, but we will now consider in some detail the first on the list, namely pronunciation, and here we cannot fail to be struck by the wonderful uniformity and regularity of the sound-system of modern dialects.To classify the modern dialects of a country is a difficult and unsatisfactory task. If we possessed about three hundred detailed grammars of the principal English dialectsspoken in the United Kingdom, and could find hundreds of competent people willing to answer queries about difficult or doubtful points, it might be possible to furnish a classification which would be tolerably accurate. But this is a state of things never likely to be realized. Though a great deal has been done in collecting material, it is as yet insufficient to enable any one to give the exact geographical area over which many of the grammatical phenomena extend, hence the boundaries given in the classification of our dialects are more or less roughly drawn. For all practical purposes we may divide the English dialects into the following seven groups:Dialectal Groups(1) Scottish, includingn.Nhb.andn.Cum.Here literary Englishahas a tendency to becomeàbefore a single nasal in such words ascan,man. The sound is generally represented in books byo, ascon,mon.O.E.æ(a) in originally open syllables andO.E.āhave fallen together, asname,hame(O.E.nama,hām),lit. Eng.name,home.O.E.oin originally open syllables andO.E.āare still kept apart, askōl,hame(O.E.colu,hām),lit. Eng.coal,home.O.E.ianduhave not been diphthongized before a followingndas inlit. Eng.O.E.uhas becomeɒ[the sound insun] as inlit. Eng.O.E.ūhas generally remained, but ins.Sc.it has becomeɒu[the sound incow] when final. InSc.medialdhas disappeared afternin such words ascinder,wonder. Finallhas generally disappeared after a guttural vowel, asā,fū,lit. Eng.all,full.ris strongly trilled in all positions.(2) North-country, meaningNhb.Dur.Cum.Wm.Yks.(exceptsw. and s.Yks.), and the northern portion of Lancashire.O.E.ihas remained beforend, e.g. a word likeblindrhymes withlit. Eng.windsb.O.E.uhas generally remained, and also when followed bynd. In words likecup,summer,pound(O.E.pund), theuhas the sound of theuinlit. Eng.pull.O.E.ūhas generally remained as inhūs,ūt,lit. Eng.house,out.ris uvular inNhb.and parts ofDur.This is called ‘the Northumberland burr’.(3) North Midland, meaningsw. and s.Yks., the southernportion ofLan.I.Ma.Chs.n.Wal.Stf.Der.Not.Lin.Rut.Lei.Shr.O.E.ahas becomeebeforegin parts ofYks.andLan.asdreg,reg,lit. Eng.drag,rag.O.E.a(o)has in several of these dialects becomeuorɒbeforengin such words aslong,wrong. This pronunciation has been taken over into the standard language inamong,-monger,mongrel.O.E.ein originally open syllables, GermanicǣandO.E.ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā) are still kept apart in several dialects, whereas inlit. Eng.they have fallen together, e.g.steal,sleep,heal(O.E.stelan,slǣpan,hǣlanbesidehāl).(4) South Midland, meaningNhp.War.Wor.Hrf.Mon.s.Wal.Glo.Oxf.Bck.Bdf.Hrt.Mid.Hnt.O.E.a(o)has becomeuorɒbeforeŋinlong,wrong,&c.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st, as inlit. Eng.gasp,grass,fast. Initialshrhas becomesr, as insrimp,srivel,lit. Eng.shrimp,shrivel.(5) East-country, meaningCmb.Nrf.Suf.Ess.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st.O.E.yhas becomee, aspet(O.E.pytt),lit. Eng.pit, but thiseis rapidly disappearing through the influence of the standard language. It has been adopted intolit. Eng.inevil,fledge,merry(O.E.yfel,-flycge,myrige).O.E.ȳhas becomeī, asmīs(O.E.mȳs),lit. Eng.mice.(6) South-country,Ken.Sur.Sus.Brks.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st.O.E.æ(a)in originally closed syllables has becomeein parts of Kent, asbek,thet(O.E.bæc,þæt),lit. Eng.back,that. Initialþrhas becomedr, asdrī,lit. Eng.three. Initial and medialvhas becomewinKen.ande.Sus.(7) South-west-country, meaningI.W.Hmp.Wil.Dor.Som.Dev.Cor.O.E.æ(a)has becomeǣbeforesp,ss,st.O.E.orin the combinationor+ consonant has becomeāin such words ascorn,storm. This also occurs in Group 6 above.O.E.ihas generally becomeebeforengornk, especially inWil.andDev.astheng,drenk,lit. Eng.thing,drink. Adhas been developed betweenl—r,r—l,n—r, aspālder,mādl,tailder,kānder,lit. Eng.parlour,marl,tailor,corner. Initialfandshave becomevandzin native wordsinWil.Dor.Som.Dev.Initialþ[the sound inthin] has becomeð[the sound inthen] in sm.Hmp.I.W.Wil.Dor.Som.Dev.e.Cor.Initialþrhas becomedr.PhonologyThe above are the main distinguishing features of the phonology of the dialects as taken in groups, but no such list can adequately represent the range of pronunciation in the dialects taken individually. The extent of this range can be shown by taking a list of common standard English words, where the number of different ways in which they are known to be pronounced in the various dialects has been carefully counted and registered, e.g. all (20), both (27), chamber (23), close (33), clothes (29), coat (20), cold (31), cow (20), cucumber (35), daughter (36), do (17), done (24), earth (44), father (35), gate (30), good (21), have (24), hold (37), home (44), house (29), night (22), oats (30), old (42), one (21), potato (46), so (24), through (29), whole (33), wrong (22).The evidence of the pronunciation of words in the different English dialects is of great importance to the student of English philology, as he is thereby often enabled to explain anomalies in the standard language. To take only one instance: philologists have been at a loss to explain why the wordoveninlit. Eng.does not rhyme withcloven. TheO.E.recorded form isofenparallel to the past participleclofen, yet while the latter word has followed the normal development, the former has the development not of an originalO.E.o, but ofu. Now the collected evidence of the dialects goes to show that there must have been beside the recordedO.E.ofenan unrecorded form *ufenfrom whichlit. Eng.ovenis quite regularly developed, for theorepresenting an olderuis no more than the old French spelling with which we are familiar in such words aslove,come,son,&c.We can best compare the phonology of the dialects with that of the standard language by examining the vowels and consonants categorically, and noting some of the differences in development. The following is merely a rough outlineof the subject, and some of the phonological points noticed in the classification of the dialects will not here be repeated.Phonology: VowelsVowels.—(1)a.The soundæwhich is regular inlit. Eng.in close syllables such asback,thatch, is rare in the dialects, occurring chiefly ine. and s.Cy.The majority of the dialects haveain this position. Theain open syllables which has becomeeiinlit. Eng.as inname,shake, has becomeēinSc.n.Cy.andMidl.Ins.Sc.and nearly all the other dialects it has become diphthongized toeəoriə, butai[the sound intime] inHrt.Lon.Ess.andse.Kent.(2)e.O.E.eof whatever origin has in close syllables generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but in many of thes.Sc.e. and sw.Cy.dialects it has becomeæ[the sound inhat,man].O.E.eof whatever origin, has in originally open syllables generally had the same development inSc.n. and s.Cy.as in the standard language, i.e. it has becomeī, but in thes.Midl.e.Cy.andsw.Cy.dialects it has mostly becomeē, and in the other dialects it has generally been diphthongized intoeioriə, the former occurring especially in thew. and s. portions of Yks., inLan.n.Stf.andNhp., and the latter in the remaining portions ofYks.Lan.and inLin.s.Oxf.andw.Wil.(3)i.This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but ins.Sc.n.Nhb.n.Cum.Der.andw.Som.it has becomee. In mostSc.dialects except in the south, it has become a kind of mixed vowel somewhat resembling theein GermanGabe.(4)u.This vowel has had the same development inSc.n.Nhb.n.Cum.e. s. and sw.Cy.and in some of thes.Midl.dialects as in the standard language, but in then.Cy.and many of then.Midl.dialectsO.E.uhas generally remained unchanged. In some of then.Midl.and many of thes.Midl.dialects it has becomeù, a sound formed with the lips more open than foru, and which acoustically resembles ano-sound. It should be noted that those dialects which haveɒorù, generally also have it in those words where the standard language hasu, as inbull,put.(5)y.This vowel has generally had the same development as in the standard language, but inKen.e.Sc.ande.An.it has regularly becomee, which was a characteristic feature of these dialects already in theM.E.period.(6)o.In close syllables. This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but in them.Sc.s.Midl.s. and sw.Cy.dialects there is a tendency to lengthen the vowel in monosyllables, and in some dialects there is also a tendency to changeotoaespecially before a followingpandft, asshap,tap,craft,lit. Eng.shop,top,croft.o.In originally open syllables. In the development of this vowel the dialects differ entirely from the standard language. In the southern portions ofYks.andLan.it has becomeoi(parallel with the development ofetoei,v.(2) above), but in all the other dialects it has become long closeōor has become diphthongized touə(often writtenoə). It should be noted that inLan.ne.Der.and all the dialects north of the Humber the development ofO.E.oin open syllables andO.E.āis still kept apart, whereas in all the other parts of England the two sounds have fallen together.(7)ā.In all the dialects north of the Humber this vowel has had the same development asO.E.a,æ, in open syllables, i.e. it has becomeē,eə, oriə(ia), whereas in the dialects south of the Humber the regular development is generally the same as forO.E.oin open syllables.(8)ǣ(= Germanicǣ,W.S.ǣ, Anglianē). This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, i.e. it has becomeī, but in the southern half of England it has not unfrequently becomeēoriə, rarelyei, and these diphthongs also occur sporadically as far north as Yorkshire.(9)ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā). This vowel has generally had the same development as the preceding one, except that theēandiəextend over a much wider area, which shows that many dialects still keep these two sounds apart (ǣ¹andǣ²).(10)ē.This vowel has mostly becomeīin the dialects justas in the standard language, buteibesideīoccurs innw.Yks.s.Chs.andLei., andiəbesideīinm.Yks.s.Midl.andsw.Cy.(11)ī.O.E.īappears as a diphthong in all the dialects except in those ofe. and se. Yks.m. and s.Lan.where we haveā. InSc.andNhb.it is mostlyei, butaiis also not uncommon, especially inFrf.Per.Lth.andEdb.;n.Cy.ai; in the Midlands,e. and s.Cy.it is generallyoior a diphthong closely resemblingoi; and insw.Cy.ɒi, which is approximately the same as in the standard language.(12)ō.The normal development of this vowel is generallyüorö(rarelyǖorœ̄, butīinne.Sc.) inSc.;ǖine.Cy.;ǖbesideœ̄insw.Cy.;iubesideiəinn.Cy., butsw.Yks.ui; andū, more rarelyiu, in the Midlands;ū, ins.Cy.(13)ū.O.E.ūhas generally remained inSc.andn.Cy.(butɒuins.Sc.when final) andn.Lin.It has becomeāins. and sw.Yks.and the greater part ofDer.andNot.;ǣinLan.,ɒuin the Midlands, especially in the northern portions, andsw.Cy.;euin the southern portions of the Midlands,e. and s.Cy.and parts ofsw.Cy.(14)ȳ.This vowel has generally had the same development asO.E.ī, but it has becomeīin the eastern counties and also inGlo.Bdf.e.Sus.Dev.andCor.(15)O.E.e͞a. This diphthong has generally had the same development asO.E.ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā).(16)O.E.e͞ohas generally had the same development asO.E.ē.Phonology: ConsonantsConsonants.—(1) The Semi-vowels. (a)w.Initialwhas generally remained before vowels, but in parts ofSc.Midl.e.An.andsw.Cy.it has disappeared in certain words, mainly where it stands before a followingu, such aswoman,wonder,wood,wool,wound,&c.There are no examples in the dialects of initialwbeing changed tovbefore a following vowel. This sound-change, characteristic of the language spoken by Mr. Samuel Weller and his father—‘ven’, ‘vay’, ‘svear’, ‘anyveres’,&c.—seems to have been invented by Dickens. The converse, namely, the change of initialvtow, does occur inBck.Nrf.Suf.Ess.Ken.e.Sus., and Dickenswould have heard this pronunciation—wery, very,wenter, venture—used by the class of person typified in Sam Weller, but there is no authority for the change ofwtov, and it can only be described as ‘artist’s licence’. An initialwhas often arisen in the dialects through a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, e.g. in such words aswome,wum,woats,wold,lit. Eng.home,oats,old. This accounts for thewin the place-names Woking, Wokingham, which within living memory were pronounced Oaking, Oakingham, and for the pronunciation oflit. Eng.one,once, and the spellingwhole. Initialhwhas becomefinne.Sc.in such words aswhat,wheat,wheel,&c.Initialkwhas often becometwinn.Cy.dialects, in such words astwilt,lit. Eng.quilt. Awhas often been developed before a back vowel preceded by a consonant, especially a labial, more rarely when preceded by a guttural, dental, nasal, or liquid. Thiswis chiefly confined to thes.Midl. s. and sw.dialects when the preceding consonant is a labial, asbwone,bwoy,pwoizn,lit. Eng.bone,boy,poison. Medialwhas generally disappeared in words compounded with-ward,-worth, asawkward,backward,pennyworth,&c.It has also generally disappeared inalways, and insomewhat.(b)j.This consonant is represented in modern English spelling byy. An initialjhas often arisen in the dialects through a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, asjabl,jek,jiər,lit. Eng.able,ache,ear. Many educated people in the south of England make no difference in the pronunciation ofearandyear. As.Midl.s.Cy.saying to express a long period of time is ‘years and years and donkey’s ears’. A medialjhas often been developed after a consonant. In many cases the change has been caused by a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, e.g.gjārdin,kjetl,lit. Eng.garden,kettle.(2) The Liquids. (a)l.Mediallhas often disappeared, especially in the combinationsld,lf,lh,lk,lp,ls, andlt, e.g. in such words asbald,bulk,pulpit,false,bolt. Finallhas often disappeared after a guttural vowel, especially in theSc.Ir.n.Cy.andn.Midl.dialects, e.g. in such words asall,fool,pull,small,wool.(b)r.InSc.and the greater part ofIrel.and the northern parts ofNhb.andCum.rhas a strong trill. InNhb.and parts of n.Dur.it is a uvularr, not unlike the Frenchr. It is often called ‘the Northumberland burr’. In all thes. and sw.dialects it is a reverted or retractedr, the trill being indistinct and less sharp than for theSc.r. Similarly in these dialects thelis reverted. In the rest of Englandrhas had practically the same development as in the standard language. When a word ends in and the next word begins with a vowel, a ‘euphonic’ris generally inserted to avoid a hiatus, in thes.Midl., eastern, southern, and south-western dialects, asaidiər əv it, idea of it,Sērər An, Sarah Ann,lǭr əv Iŋglənd, law of England. And anris sometimes inserted medially, asdrǭrin, drawing. This insertion of ‘euphonic’ris not confined to dialect speakers, it is quite common among educated people in thes.Midl.ands.counties, and seems to be spreading gradually further north.rhas often undergone metathesis, especially in thesw.dialects inapə̄n,tʃildən,gərn,h)undəd,pə̄ti,&c.,lit. Eng.apron,children,grin,hundred,pretty,&c.(3) The Nasals. (a)m.This consonant has generally remained unchanged in all positions except where after consonants it has become vocalic, as inbodm,botm,kindm,&c.,lit. Eng.bottom,kingdom,&c.(b)n.Initialnhas remained innadder(O.E.nǣdre),napron(O.Fr.naperon),nauger(M.E.nauger),lit. Eng.adder,apron,auger. In the various dialects there is a large number of words which have an inorganic initialn. It has arisen partly from thenof the indefinite articlean, and partly from thenof the possessive pronounmine; the latter is especially the case in words denoting relationship, asn-oration, a great noise or clamour,n-urchin, a hedgehog,n-awl,n-aunt,n-uncle,cp.‘Nuncle Lear, nuncle Lear, tarry and take the fool with thee,’Lear,I.iv. 338. Theninlit. Eng.nickname(M.E.ekename),newt(O.E.efeta) is of this origin.The normal formevetis common in the dialects of southern England. In a few wordsnhas been developed before medialdȝ; [the final sound inbridge], asporindȝə(r, a coarse pot or mug used for porridge,sosindȝə(r, sausage,cp.lit. Eng.messenger,passenger, formessager,passager. In then.andn.Midl.dialects medialnhas disappeared in unaccented syllables asLiŋkiʃə(r, Lincolnshire,Robisn, Robinson,&c.In a few words, mainly inn.Cy.dialects, finalnoccurs contrary to the usage of thelit.language; these are:aivin(O.E.īfig,īfegn), ivy,holin(O.E.holen,holegn), holly,miln(O.E.mylen), mill,ratn(O.Fr.raton), rat,slōn(O.E.slāh,slā,plur.slān), sloe.The gutturalŋ[the final sound inhang], writtenninO.E., only occurred before the gutturalsgandc. In stressed syllables medialŋghas becomeŋinSc.Irel.n.Cy.n.Midl.and parts ofKen.Sus.andSom., asfiŋər, finger,siŋl, single,&c.ŋhas becomenbefore a following dental inlenþ, length,strenþ, strength, inSc.Irel.andn.Cy.Thenis also very common in other parts of England, but beside it there exist the formsleŋþ,leŋkþ;streŋþ,streŋkþ. The forms withkare often used by educated people in the Midlands. Medialŋin unstressed syllables has generally disappeared, asBebitn, Bebbington,Notigəm, Nottingham,&c.Final unstressedŋhas generally becomenin all the dialects, as inevenin(g),farthin(g),mornin(g),sendin(g), and similarly in all present participles and verbal nouns in-ing. In parts ofLan.Chs.Der.when dialect speakers try to talk ‘fine’ they generally substituteŋkforŋin all present participles and verbal nouns in-ing. The same thing can often be heard among educated speakers in those parts.(4) The Labials. (a)p.This consonant has generally remained in all positions the same as in the standard language.(b)b.This consonant hardly ever occurs in any of the dialects betweenm—lorm—rin such words asbramble,thimble,chamber,number. The wordmarbleappears in almost all the dialects asmarvl. The formpipl, pebble, occurs insomes. and sw.dialects,cp.O.E.papol-besideM.E.pibble-,pobble.(c)f.Initial voicelessfhas become the voiced spirantvine.Hrf., parts ofGlo.,w.Brks.Wil.Dor.Dev.Som.The change must have taken place at a very early period because it is confined almost exclusively to native words, hence it must have taken place before the influx of French words. Three examples of this dialect peculiarity have been incorporated intolit. Eng., viz.vixen,vat,vane(O.E.fyxen,fæt,fana).(5) The Dentals. (a)t.The initial combinationstrandstrhave becometþr,stþr, orþr,sþrinIrel.Wm.e. and se. Yks.e. em. and s.Lan.I.Ma., astþrī,þrī, tree,stþrīt,sþrīt, street. Medialtbetween vowels and vowel-like consonants has becomedin thesw.dialects, asbodl, bottle,kedl, kettle;bodm, bottom, occurs also inSc.andn.Cy.dialects, but this goes back to a formbodanwhich existed besidebotmalready inO.E.Thetin French words which has becometʃ[the sound of the medial consonant innature] inlit. Eng.through the influence of the followingühas remained unchanged in the dialects, aspiktə(r, picture,fiətə(r, feature. Finalthas disappeared in many dialects after voiceless consonants, especially in the combinationst; finally afterkandpit has disappeared in allSc.dialects, asfak(t,korek(t,temp(t. Examples of the loss oftaftersoccur in all parts ofSc.Irel.andEng.especially in such words asbeast,joist,last,next. In a few instances athas been added aftern,f, ors, assāmənt, sermon,sudənt, sudden,vāmint, vermin,teligraft, telegraph,aist, ice,naist, nice,wənst, once,tweist, twice. This excrescenttoccurs in certain words in the standard language, e.g.against(M.E.ageines),amidst(M.E.amiddes),behest(O.E.hǣs),betwixt(O.E.andM.E.betwix),whilst(M.E.whiles),ancient(Fr.ancien),pheasant(O.Fr.faisan).(b)d.Intervocalicdfollowed byrin the next syllable became in the first instanceðin all dialects, asblaðə(r, bladder,konsiðə(r, consider,foðə(r, fodder,pūðə(r, powder,&c., in addition to the words which haveðin the standardlanguage, asfather,gather,mother,weather,&c.(O.E.fæder,gædrian,mōdor,weder,&c.). Examples of theðforms begin to appear about the year 1500, but the change has never been consistently carried out in the literary language, whilst in the dialects its operation has been regular. Where exceptions seem to occur they are due either to the influence of the standard language or to the sound-change given below. Thisðfromd(O.E.fæder,&c.) fell together withO.E.ðin the same position (O.E.feðer,&c.), and underwent all further changes in common with it. It has thus become (1)dbesidedðn.Cum.Wm.and parts ofYks.andLan., (2)din sn.Sc.n.Cy.andse.Cy.dialects. The wordsburden(O.E.byrþen) andmurder(O.E.myrþran) had a spirant already inO.E.The forms withðare still very common inSc.Irel.n.Cy.Lan.Stf.Der.e.An.Medialdvery seldom occurs in any of the dialects betweenn—lorn—rin such words asbundle,candle,gander,thunder,&c.Medialdhas regularly disappeared afternin theSc.dialects except in those of the south, assinər, cinder,wɒnər, wonder,&c.Finaldhas a tendency in all dialects except those of thee. and se.counties to becometin words of more than one syllable, especially afternandr, asbi-jont, beyond,&c.Finaldhas generally disappeared afterninSc., but in the southern counties ofSc.it has only disappeared in the conjunctionand, the present participles, and in thepret. and pp.of strong verbs whose present ends in-nd. This loss of finaldin thepret. and pp.of verbs likebind,find,grindis quite regular inSc.Irel.and the north and northMidl.counties.(c)þ.Initialþhas generally remained voiceless except in pronouns and the adverbs derived from them, as in thelit.language. The definite article has undergone various changes. It has become (1)tinme.Nhb.Cum.Wm.n. e. nm. sw. and s.Yks.nw.Lan.n.Lin.(2)þinm. and se.Lan.wm.Stf.(3)t,þsm. and w.Yks.n. em. sw. and s.Lan.Chs.n.Stf.Der.Not.(4)dəKen.Sus.(5)d,tw.Dur.ne.Yks.(6)d,t,þnw. and e.Yks.(7)eCai.Bnff.In all other dialects it has had the same development as inlit. Eng., viz.ðī̆,ðə. In those dialects which have bothtandþ, the former is used before consonants (tman,&c.), and the latter before vowels (þapl,&c.), and when the sentence begins with the definite article.(6) The Sibilants.s.Initial voicelessshas becomezin those dialects wherefin the same position has becomev,cp.(4)(c) above. There is in the dialects a large number of words beginning withsplus a consonant where in most cases thesis not original. It occurs most frequently in the combinationsskandsq. In fact nearly all thesqwords occurring in the dialects have forms with and without initials. No rule can be laid down about the geographical distribution of the words belonging to this category. Examples are:sclaspbesideclasp,sclimbbesideclimb,scrawlbesidecrawl,scroodlebesidecroodle, to crouch,skistbesidekist, a chest,snotchbesidenotch,squenchbesidequench,stramplebesidetrample,&c.,&c.Dr. Johnson was familiar withscraunchbesidecraunch,cp.‘To Craunch.v.a.[schrantsen, Dutch; whence the vulgar say more properly toscraunch.] To crush in the mouth. The word is used bySwift.’ InGlo.and thes. and sw.countiessphas generally becomepsby metathesis, asaps, asp,klaps, clasp,lipsy, to lisp;wæpsandwæspexisted inO.E., so in the modern dialects there are double forms.(7) The Gutturals. (a)k.Initialk, generally writtencinO.E., has remained beforenin such words asknave,knead,knit,knock,&c., inne.Sc.In the remaining parts of Scotland it has disappeared in the dialect of the younger generation. In the early part of the last century it was preserved in allSc.dialects.tnfrom olderknis still used by old people inw.Frf.ande.Per.A generation ago thistnwas also common in the dialects ofCum.andWm., but it is now obsolete. Initialclhas becometlin many of the dialects ofEng.especially inYks.Lan.the Midlands, and thes. and sw.dialects, in such words asclap,claw,cliff,climb,cloak,cloud. NoSc.orIr.dialect has changed initialcltotl. In other respects initialchas generally had thesame development in the dialects as in the standard language. Initialschas become,ʃ[the initial sound inshe] in nativeEng.words just as in thelit.language, asshade,shell,ship,&c.; whereas in words of foreign origin it has remained in the dialects just as in thelit.language, asscaffold,scale,scatter,school,skin,&c.Excluding allsc-words which are of various origins and which are common both to thelit.language and the dialects—such as the words in the above list:scaffold,scale,&c.—it is a remarkable fact that theEnglish Dialect Dictionarycontains no less than 1,154 simplesc-words. This points to one of two things: either the dialects contain a far larger number of Norse words than is generally supposed, or else it is not certain that initialschas under all circumstances become ʃ in native words in the dialects. Words where a finalkhas becometʃin thelit. lang.generally havetʃalso in the dialects, asbleach,flitch,reach,stitch,&c.But in the dialects ofSc.Irel.n.Cy.and parts of then.Midlandsassibilation has not taken place to the same extent as in thelit.language, hence such forms asskrīk,sik,þak,&c.,lit. Eng.screech,such,thatch,&c.(b)g.Initialghas remained beforeningnat,gnawinne. and s.n.Sc., but it has disappeared in the remaining parts ofSc.Irel.andEng.Initialglhas becomedlin many dialects ofEng., especially inYks.Lan.the Midlands, and thes. and sw.dialects, parallel to the change ofcltotl.Finalg.O.E.geminatedg, writtencg, has generally becomedȝ[the final sound insedge] in the dialects in such words asbridge,edge,ridge,&c., but as in the case of the change of finalktotʃ, inSc.and the northern parts ofEng.assibilation has not taken place to the same extent as in thelit.language, hence such forms asbrig,rig,seg,&c.,lit. Eng.bridge,ridge,sedge,&c.(c)h.Initialhhas remained before vowels inSc.Irel.Nhb.and perhaps also in portions ofn.Dur.andn.Cum.In the remaining parts ofEng.it has disappeared, but words originally beginning with a vowel orhoften have anhprefixed when the dialect speaker wishes to express a strongemphasis. The emphatic form ofithas retained thehinSc.andIrel.The emphatic form ofusishɒzinSc.andNhb., the only word in theSc.dialects containing an inorganich. Medial and finalχ[the final sound inSc.loch] has generally becomefin the dialects ofEng.in those words which havefin thelit.language, ascough,laugh,rough,tough, butfalso occurs in many dialects in certain other words besides, asdaftər,slaftər,þoft,þruf,&c.,lit. Eng.daughter,slaughter,thought,through,&c.To turn now from phonology to accidence, we shall find that here, too, system and rule prevail to a surprising extent.
The average educated Englishman has no accurate conception of what a dialect really is, beyond a vague notion that the term covers a mass of barbarisms, corruptions, and mispronunciations of the King’s English, devoid of any order or system, and used by the illiterate rustic in a haphazard fashion with no regard to consistency. But as we have already seen in Chapter VII, in very many cases it is the standard language which contains the anomalies and the corruptions, whilst the correct forms have been handed down in the dialects where systematic sound-laws and exact grammatical rules have been regularly developed and carried out unhampered by the arbitrary rules of fashion, or the regulations of a stereotyped spelling 400 years behind the pronunciation. As Max Müller puts it: ‘the real and natural life of language is in its dialects,’The Science of Language,vol. i, p. 55.
A dialect may be defined as one of the subordinate forms or varieties of a language arising from local peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiom, or as that form or idiom of a language peculiar to a limited region or people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole people. Hitherto we have been concerned chiefly with the second of these three characteristics of a dialect, namely vocabulary, but we will now consider in some detail the first on the list, namely pronunciation, and here we cannot fail to be struck by the wonderful uniformity and regularity of the sound-system of modern dialects.
To classify the modern dialects of a country is a difficult and unsatisfactory task. If we possessed about three hundred detailed grammars of the principal English dialectsspoken in the United Kingdom, and could find hundreds of competent people willing to answer queries about difficult or doubtful points, it might be possible to furnish a classification which would be tolerably accurate. But this is a state of things never likely to be realized. Though a great deal has been done in collecting material, it is as yet insufficient to enable any one to give the exact geographical area over which many of the grammatical phenomena extend, hence the boundaries given in the classification of our dialects are more or less roughly drawn. For all practical purposes we may divide the English dialects into the following seven groups:
Dialectal Groups
(1) Scottish, includingn.Nhb.andn.Cum.Here literary Englishahas a tendency to becomeàbefore a single nasal in such words ascan,man. The sound is generally represented in books byo, ascon,mon.O.E.æ(a) in originally open syllables andO.E.āhave fallen together, asname,hame(O.E.nama,hām),lit. Eng.name,home.O.E.oin originally open syllables andO.E.āare still kept apart, askōl,hame(O.E.colu,hām),lit. Eng.coal,home.O.E.ianduhave not been diphthongized before a followingndas inlit. Eng.O.E.uhas becomeɒ[the sound insun] as inlit. Eng.O.E.ūhas generally remained, but ins.Sc.it has becomeɒu[the sound incow] when final. InSc.medialdhas disappeared afternin such words ascinder,wonder. Finallhas generally disappeared after a guttural vowel, asā,fū,lit. Eng.all,full.ris strongly trilled in all positions.
(2) North-country, meaningNhb.Dur.Cum.Wm.Yks.(exceptsw. and s.Yks.), and the northern portion of Lancashire.O.E.ihas remained beforend, e.g. a word likeblindrhymes withlit. Eng.windsb.O.E.uhas generally remained, and also when followed bynd. In words likecup,summer,pound(O.E.pund), theuhas the sound of theuinlit. Eng.pull.O.E.ūhas generally remained as inhūs,ūt,lit. Eng.house,out.ris uvular inNhb.and parts ofDur.This is called ‘the Northumberland burr’.
(3) North Midland, meaningsw. and s.Yks., the southernportion ofLan.I.Ma.Chs.n.Wal.Stf.Der.Not.Lin.Rut.Lei.Shr.O.E.ahas becomeebeforegin parts ofYks.andLan.asdreg,reg,lit. Eng.drag,rag.O.E.a(o)has in several of these dialects becomeuorɒbeforengin such words aslong,wrong. This pronunciation has been taken over into the standard language inamong,-monger,mongrel.O.E.ein originally open syllables, GermanicǣandO.E.ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā) are still kept apart in several dialects, whereas inlit. Eng.they have fallen together, e.g.steal,sleep,heal(O.E.stelan,slǣpan,hǣlanbesidehāl).
(4) South Midland, meaningNhp.War.Wor.Hrf.Mon.s.Wal.Glo.Oxf.Bck.Bdf.Hrt.Mid.Hnt.O.E.a(o)has becomeuorɒbeforeŋinlong,wrong,&c.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st, as inlit. Eng.gasp,grass,fast. Initialshrhas becomesr, as insrimp,srivel,lit. Eng.shrimp,shrivel.
(5) East-country, meaningCmb.Nrf.Suf.Ess.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st.O.E.yhas becomee, aspet(O.E.pytt),lit. Eng.pit, but thiseis rapidly disappearing through the influence of the standard language. It has been adopted intolit. Eng.inevil,fledge,merry(O.E.yfel,-flycge,myrige).O.E.ȳhas becomeī, asmīs(O.E.mȳs),lit. Eng.mice.
(6) South-country,Ken.Sur.Sus.Brks.O.E.ahas becomeābeforesp,ss,st.O.E.æ(a)in originally closed syllables has becomeein parts of Kent, asbek,thet(O.E.bæc,þæt),lit. Eng.back,that. Initialþrhas becomedr, asdrī,lit. Eng.three. Initial and medialvhas becomewinKen.ande.Sus.
(7) South-west-country, meaningI.W.Hmp.Wil.Dor.Som.Dev.Cor.O.E.æ(a)has becomeǣbeforesp,ss,st.O.E.orin the combinationor+ consonant has becomeāin such words ascorn,storm. This also occurs in Group 6 above.O.E.ihas generally becomeebeforengornk, especially inWil.andDev.astheng,drenk,lit. Eng.thing,drink. Adhas been developed betweenl—r,r—l,n—r, aspālder,mādl,tailder,kānder,lit. Eng.parlour,marl,tailor,corner. Initialfandshave becomevandzin native wordsinWil.Dor.Som.Dev.Initialþ[the sound inthin] has becomeð[the sound inthen] in sm.Hmp.I.W.Wil.Dor.Som.Dev.e.Cor.Initialþrhas becomedr.
Phonology
The above are the main distinguishing features of the phonology of the dialects as taken in groups, but no such list can adequately represent the range of pronunciation in the dialects taken individually. The extent of this range can be shown by taking a list of common standard English words, where the number of different ways in which they are known to be pronounced in the various dialects has been carefully counted and registered, e.g. all (20), both (27), chamber (23), close (33), clothes (29), coat (20), cold (31), cow (20), cucumber (35), daughter (36), do (17), done (24), earth (44), father (35), gate (30), good (21), have (24), hold (37), home (44), house (29), night (22), oats (30), old (42), one (21), potato (46), so (24), through (29), whole (33), wrong (22).
The evidence of the pronunciation of words in the different English dialects is of great importance to the student of English philology, as he is thereby often enabled to explain anomalies in the standard language. To take only one instance: philologists have been at a loss to explain why the wordoveninlit. Eng.does not rhyme withcloven. TheO.E.recorded form isofenparallel to the past participleclofen, yet while the latter word has followed the normal development, the former has the development not of an originalO.E.o, but ofu. Now the collected evidence of the dialects goes to show that there must have been beside the recordedO.E.ofenan unrecorded form *ufenfrom whichlit. Eng.ovenis quite regularly developed, for theorepresenting an olderuis no more than the old French spelling with which we are familiar in such words aslove,come,son,&c.
We can best compare the phonology of the dialects with that of the standard language by examining the vowels and consonants categorically, and noting some of the differences in development. The following is merely a rough outlineof the subject, and some of the phonological points noticed in the classification of the dialects will not here be repeated.
Phonology: Vowels
Vowels.—(1)a.The soundæwhich is regular inlit. Eng.in close syllables such asback,thatch, is rare in the dialects, occurring chiefly ine. and s.Cy.The majority of the dialects haveain this position. Theain open syllables which has becomeeiinlit. Eng.as inname,shake, has becomeēinSc.n.Cy.andMidl.Ins.Sc.and nearly all the other dialects it has become diphthongized toeəoriə, butai[the sound intime] inHrt.Lon.Ess.andse.Kent.
(2)e.O.E.eof whatever origin has in close syllables generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but in many of thes.Sc.e. and sw.Cy.dialects it has becomeæ[the sound inhat,man].O.E.eof whatever origin, has in originally open syllables generally had the same development inSc.n. and s.Cy.as in the standard language, i.e. it has becomeī, but in thes.Midl.e.Cy.andsw.Cy.dialects it has mostly becomeē, and in the other dialects it has generally been diphthongized intoeioriə, the former occurring especially in thew. and s. portions of Yks., inLan.n.Stf.andNhp., and the latter in the remaining portions ofYks.Lan.and inLin.s.Oxf.andw.Wil.
(3)i.This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but ins.Sc.n.Nhb.n.Cum.Der.andw.Som.it has becomee. In mostSc.dialects except in the south, it has become a kind of mixed vowel somewhat resembling theein GermanGabe.
(4)u.This vowel has had the same development inSc.n.Nhb.n.Cum.e. s. and sw.Cy.and in some of thes.Midl.dialects as in the standard language, but in then.Cy.and many of then.Midl.dialectsO.E.uhas generally remained unchanged. In some of then.Midl.and many of thes.Midl.dialects it has becomeù, a sound formed with the lips more open than foru, and which acoustically resembles ano-sound. It should be noted that those dialects which haveɒorù, generally also have it in those words where the standard language hasu, as inbull,put.
(5)y.This vowel has generally had the same development as in the standard language, but inKen.e.Sc.ande.An.it has regularly becomee, which was a characteristic feature of these dialects already in theM.E.period.
(6)o.In close syllables. This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, but in them.Sc.s.Midl.s. and sw.Cy.dialects there is a tendency to lengthen the vowel in monosyllables, and in some dialects there is also a tendency to changeotoaespecially before a followingpandft, asshap,tap,craft,lit. Eng.shop,top,croft.
o.In originally open syllables. In the development of this vowel the dialects differ entirely from the standard language. In the southern portions ofYks.andLan.it has becomeoi(parallel with the development ofetoei,v.(2) above), but in all the other dialects it has become long closeōor has become diphthongized touə(often writtenoə). It should be noted that inLan.ne.Der.and all the dialects north of the Humber the development ofO.E.oin open syllables andO.E.āis still kept apart, whereas in all the other parts of England the two sounds have fallen together.
(7)ā.In all the dialects north of the Humber this vowel has had the same development asO.E.a,æ, in open syllables, i.e. it has becomeē,eə, oriə(ia), whereas in the dialects south of the Humber the regular development is generally the same as forO.E.oin open syllables.
(8)ǣ(= Germanicǣ,W.S.ǣ, Anglianē). This vowel has generally had the same development in the dialects as in the standard language, i.e. it has becomeī, but in the southern half of England it has not unfrequently becomeēoriə, rarelyei, and these diphthongs also occur sporadically as far north as Yorkshire.
(9)ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā). This vowel has generally had the same development as the preceding one, except that theēandiəextend over a much wider area, which shows that many dialects still keep these two sounds apart (ǣ¹andǣ²).
(10)ē.This vowel has mostly becomeīin the dialects justas in the standard language, buteibesideīoccurs innw.Yks.s.Chs.andLei., andiəbesideīinm.Yks.s.Midl.andsw.Cy.
(11)ī.O.E.īappears as a diphthong in all the dialects except in those ofe. and se. Yks.m. and s.Lan.where we haveā. InSc.andNhb.it is mostlyei, butaiis also not uncommon, especially inFrf.Per.Lth.andEdb.;n.Cy.ai; in the Midlands,e. and s.Cy.it is generallyoior a diphthong closely resemblingoi; and insw.Cy.ɒi, which is approximately the same as in the standard language.
(12)ō.The normal development of this vowel is generallyüorö(rarelyǖorœ̄, butīinne.Sc.) inSc.;ǖine.Cy.;ǖbesideœ̄insw.Cy.;iubesideiəinn.Cy., butsw.Yks.ui; andū, more rarelyiu, in the Midlands;ū, ins.Cy.
(13)ū.O.E.ūhas generally remained inSc.andn.Cy.(butɒuins.Sc.when final) andn.Lin.It has becomeāins. and sw.Yks.and the greater part ofDer.andNot.;ǣinLan.,ɒuin the Midlands, especially in the northern portions, andsw.Cy.;euin the southern portions of the Midlands,e. and s.Cy.and parts ofsw.Cy.
(14)ȳ.This vowel has generally had the same development asO.E.ī, but it has becomeīin the eastern counties and also inGlo.Bdf.e.Sus.Dev.andCor.
(15)O.E.e͞a. This diphthong has generally had the same development asO.E.ǣ(=i-umlaut ofā).
(16)O.E.e͞ohas generally had the same development asO.E.ē.
Phonology: Consonants
Consonants.—(1) The Semi-vowels. (a)w.Initialwhas generally remained before vowels, but in parts ofSc.Midl.e.An.andsw.Cy.it has disappeared in certain words, mainly where it stands before a followingu, such aswoman,wonder,wood,wool,wound,&c.There are no examples in the dialects of initialwbeing changed tovbefore a following vowel. This sound-change, characteristic of the language spoken by Mr. Samuel Weller and his father—‘ven’, ‘vay’, ‘svear’, ‘anyveres’,&c.—seems to have been invented by Dickens. The converse, namely, the change of initialvtow, does occur inBck.Nrf.Suf.Ess.Ken.e.Sus., and Dickenswould have heard this pronunciation—wery, very,wenter, venture—used by the class of person typified in Sam Weller, but there is no authority for the change ofwtov, and it can only be described as ‘artist’s licence’. An initialwhas often arisen in the dialects through a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, e.g. in such words aswome,wum,woats,wold,lit. Eng.home,oats,old. This accounts for thewin the place-names Woking, Wokingham, which within living memory were pronounced Oaking, Oakingham, and for the pronunciation oflit. Eng.one,once, and the spellingwhole. Initialhwhas becomefinne.Sc.in such words aswhat,wheat,wheel,&c.Initialkwhas often becometwinn.Cy.dialects, in such words astwilt,lit. Eng.quilt. Awhas often been developed before a back vowel preceded by a consonant, especially a labial, more rarely when preceded by a guttural, dental, nasal, or liquid. Thiswis chiefly confined to thes.Midl. s. and sw.dialects when the preceding consonant is a labial, asbwone,bwoy,pwoizn,lit. Eng.bone,boy,poison. Medialwhas generally disappeared in words compounded with-ward,-worth, asawkward,backward,pennyworth,&c.It has also generally disappeared inalways, and insomewhat.
(b)j.This consonant is represented in modern English spelling byy. An initialjhas often arisen in the dialects through a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, asjabl,jek,jiər,lit. Eng.able,ache,ear. Many educated people in the south of England make no difference in the pronunciation ofearandyear. As.Midl.s.Cy.saying to express a long period of time is ‘years and years and donkey’s ears’. A medialjhas often been developed after a consonant. In many cases the change has been caused by a falling diphthong having become a rising diphthong, e.g.gjārdin,kjetl,lit. Eng.garden,kettle.
(2) The Liquids. (a)l.Mediallhas often disappeared, especially in the combinationsld,lf,lh,lk,lp,ls, andlt, e.g. in such words asbald,bulk,pulpit,false,bolt. Finallhas often disappeared after a guttural vowel, especially in theSc.Ir.n.Cy.andn.Midl.dialects, e.g. in such words asall,fool,pull,small,wool.
(b)r.InSc.and the greater part ofIrel.and the northern parts ofNhb.andCum.rhas a strong trill. InNhb.and parts of n.Dur.it is a uvularr, not unlike the Frenchr. It is often called ‘the Northumberland burr’. In all thes. and sw.dialects it is a reverted or retractedr, the trill being indistinct and less sharp than for theSc.r. Similarly in these dialects thelis reverted. In the rest of Englandrhas had practically the same development as in the standard language. When a word ends in and the next word begins with a vowel, a ‘euphonic’ris generally inserted to avoid a hiatus, in thes.Midl., eastern, southern, and south-western dialects, asaidiər əv it, idea of it,Sērər An, Sarah Ann,lǭr əv Iŋglənd, law of England. And anris sometimes inserted medially, asdrǭrin, drawing. This insertion of ‘euphonic’ris not confined to dialect speakers, it is quite common among educated people in thes.Midl.ands.counties, and seems to be spreading gradually further north.rhas often undergone metathesis, especially in thesw.dialects inapə̄n,tʃildən,gərn,h)undəd,pə̄ti,&c.,lit. Eng.apron,children,grin,hundred,pretty,&c.
(3) The Nasals. (a)m.This consonant has generally remained unchanged in all positions except where after consonants it has become vocalic, as inbodm,botm,kindm,&c.,lit. Eng.bottom,kingdom,&c.
(b)n.Initialnhas remained innadder(O.E.nǣdre),napron(O.Fr.naperon),nauger(M.E.nauger),lit. Eng.adder,apron,auger. In the various dialects there is a large number of words which have an inorganic initialn. It has arisen partly from thenof the indefinite articlean, and partly from thenof the possessive pronounmine; the latter is especially the case in words denoting relationship, asn-oration, a great noise or clamour,n-urchin, a hedgehog,n-awl,n-aunt,n-uncle,cp.‘Nuncle Lear, nuncle Lear, tarry and take the fool with thee,’Lear,I.iv. 338. Theninlit. Eng.nickname(M.E.ekename),newt(O.E.efeta) is of this origin.The normal formevetis common in the dialects of southern England. In a few wordsnhas been developed before medialdȝ; [the final sound inbridge], asporindȝə(r, a coarse pot or mug used for porridge,sosindȝə(r, sausage,cp.lit. Eng.messenger,passenger, formessager,passager. In then.andn.Midl.dialects medialnhas disappeared in unaccented syllables asLiŋkiʃə(r, Lincolnshire,Robisn, Robinson,&c.In a few words, mainly inn.Cy.dialects, finalnoccurs contrary to the usage of thelit.language; these are:aivin(O.E.īfig,īfegn), ivy,holin(O.E.holen,holegn), holly,miln(O.E.mylen), mill,ratn(O.Fr.raton), rat,slōn(O.E.slāh,slā,plur.slān), sloe.
The gutturalŋ[the final sound inhang], writtenninO.E., only occurred before the gutturalsgandc. In stressed syllables medialŋghas becomeŋinSc.Irel.n.Cy.n.Midl.and parts ofKen.Sus.andSom., asfiŋər, finger,siŋl, single,&c.ŋhas becomenbefore a following dental inlenþ, length,strenþ, strength, inSc.Irel.andn.Cy.Thenis also very common in other parts of England, but beside it there exist the formsleŋþ,leŋkþ;streŋþ,streŋkþ. The forms withkare often used by educated people in the Midlands. Medialŋin unstressed syllables has generally disappeared, asBebitn, Bebbington,Notigəm, Nottingham,&c.Final unstressedŋhas generally becomenin all the dialects, as inevenin(g),farthin(g),mornin(g),sendin(g), and similarly in all present participles and verbal nouns in-ing. In parts ofLan.Chs.Der.when dialect speakers try to talk ‘fine’ they generally substituteŋkforŋin all present participles and verbal nouns in-ing. The same thing can often be heard among educated speakers in those parts.
(4) The Labials. (a)p.This consonant has generally remained in all positions the same as in the standard language.
(b)b.This consonant hardly ever occurs in any of the dialects betweenm—lorm—rin such words asbramble,thimble,chamber,number. The wordmarbleappears in almost all the dialects asmarvl. The formpipl, pebble, occurs insomes. and sw.dialects,cp.O.E.papol-besideM.E.pibble-,pobble.
(c)f.Initial voicelessfhas become the voiced spirantvine.Hrf., parts ofGlo.,w.Brks.Wil.Dor.Dev.Som.The change must have taken place at a very early period because it is confined almost exclusively to native words, hence it must have taken place before the influx of French words. Three examples of this dialect peculiarity have been incorporated intolit. Eng., viz.vixen,vat,vane(O.E.fyxen,fæt,fana).
(5) The Dentals. (a)t.The initial combinationstrandstrhave becometþr,stþr, orþr,sþrinIrel.Wm.e. and se. Yks.e. em. and s.Lan.I.Ma., astþrī,þrī, tree,stþrīt,sþrīt, street. Medialtbetween vowels and vowel-like consonants has becomedin thesw.dialects, asbodl, bottle,kedl, kettle;bodm, bottom, occurs also inSc.andn.Cy.dialects, but this goes back to a formbodanwhich existed besidebotmalready inO.E.Thetin French words which has becometʃ[the sound of the medial consonant innature] inlit. Eng.through the influence of the followingühas remained unchanged in the dialects, aspiktə(r, picture,fiətə(r, feature. Finalthas disappeared in many dialects after voiceless consonants, especially in the combinationst; finally afterkandpit has disappeared in allSc.dialects, asfak(t,korek(t,temp(t. Examples of the loss oftaftersoccur in all parts ofSc.Irel.andEng.especially in such words asbeast,joist,last,next. In a few instances athas been added aftern,f, ors, assāmənt, sermon,sudənt, sudden,vāmint, vermin,teligraft, telegraph,aist, ice,naist, nice,wənst, once,tweist, twice. This excrescenttoccurs in certain words in the standard language, e.g.against(M.E.ageines),amidst(M.E.amiddes),behest(O.E.hǣs),betwixt(O.E.andM.E.betwix),whilst(M.E.whiles),ancient(Fr.ancien),pheasant(O.Fr.faisan).
(b)d.Intervocalicdfollowed byrin the next syllable became in the first instanceðin all dialects, asblaðə(r, bladder,konsiðə(r, consider,foðə(r, fodder,pūðə(r, powder,&c., in addition to the words which haveðin the standardlanguage, asfather,gather,mother,weather,&c.(O.E.fæder,gædrian,mōdor,weder,&c.). Examples of theðforms begin to appear about the year 1500, but the change has never been consistently carried out in the literary language, whilst in the dialects its operation has been regular. Where exceptions seem to occur they are due either to the influence of the standard language or to the sound-change given below. Thisðfromd(O.E.fæder,&c.) fell together withO.E.ðin the same position (O.E.feðer,&c.), and underwent all further changes in common with it. It has thus become (1)dbesidedðn.Cum.Wm.and parts ofYks.andLan., (2)din sn.Sc.n.Cy.andse.Cy.dialects. The wordsburden(O.E.byrþen) andmurder(O.E.myrþran) had a spirant already inO.E.The forms withðare still very common inSc.Irel.n.Cy.Lan.Stf.Der.e.An.Medialdvery seldom occurs in any of the dialects betweenn—lorn—rin such words asbundle,candle,gander,thunder,&c.Medialdhas regularly disappeared afternin theSc.dialects except in those of the south, assinər, cinder,wɒnər, wonder,&c.Finaldhas a tendency in all dialects except those of thee. and se.counties to becometin words of more than one syllable, especially afternandr, asbi-jont, beyond,&c.Finaldhas generally disappeared afterninSc., but in the southern counties ofSc.it has only disappeared in the conjunctionand, the present participles, and in thepret. and pp.of strong verbs whose present ends in-nd. This loss of finaldin thepret. and pp.of verbs likebind,find,grindis quite regular inSc.Irel.and the north and northMidl.counties.
(c)þ.Initialþhas generally remained voiceless except in pronouns and the adverbs derived from them, as in thelit.language. The definite article has undergone various changes. It has become (1)tinme.Nhb.Cum.Wm.n. e. nm. sw. and s.Yks.nw.Lan.n.Lin.(2)þinm. and se.Lan.wm.Stf.(3)t,þsm. and w.Yks.n. em. sw. and s.Lan.Chs.n.Stf.Der.Not.(4)dəKen.Sus.(5)d,tw.Dur.ne.Yks.(6)d,t,þnw. and e.Yks.(7)eCai.Bnff.In all other dialects it has had the same development as inlit. Eng., viz.ðī̆,ðə. In those dialects which have bothtandþ, the former is used before consonants (tman,&c.), and the latter before vowels (þapl,&c.), and when the sentence begins with the definite article.
(6) The Sibilants.s.Initial voicelessshas becomezin those dialects wherefin the same position has becomev,cp.(4)(c) above. There is in the dialects a large number of words beginning withsplus a consonant where in most cases thesis not original. It occurs most frequently in the combinationsskandsq. In fact nearly all thesqwords occurring in the dialects have forms with and without initials. No rule can be laid down about the geographical distribution of the words belonging to this category. Examples are:sclaspbesideclasp,sclimbbesideclimb,scrawlbesidecrawl,scroodlebesidecroodle, to crouch,skistbesidekist, a chest,snotchbesidenotch,squenchbesidequench,stramplebesidetrample,&c.,&c.Dr. Johnson was familiar withscraunchbesidecraunch,cp.‘To Craunch.v.a.[schrantsen, Dutch; whence the vulgar say more properly toscraunch.] To crush in the mouth. The word is used bySwift.’ InGlo.and thes. and sw.countiessphas generally becomepsby metathesis, asaps, asp,klaps, clasp,lipsy, to lisp;wæpsandwæspexisted inO.E., so in the modern dialects there are double forms.
(7) The Gutturals. (a)k.Initialk, generally writtencinO.E., has remained beforenin such words asknave,knead,knit,knock,&c., inne.Sc.In the remaining parts of Scotland it has disappeared in the dialect of the younger generation. In the early part of the last century it was preserved in allSc.dialects.tnfrom olderknis still used by old people inw.Frf.ande.Per.A generation ago thistnwas also common in the dialects ofCum.andWm., but it is now obsolete. Initialclhas becometlin many of the dialects ofEng.especially inYks.Lan.the Midlands, and thes. and sw.dialects, in such words asclap,claw,cliff,climb,cloak,cloud. NoSc.orIr.dialect has changed initialcltotl. In other respects initialchas generally had thesame development in the dialects as in the standard language. Initialschas become,ʃ[the initial sound inshe] in nativeEng.words just as in thelit.language, asshade,shell,ship,&c.; whereas in words of foreign origin it has remained in the dialects just as in thelit.language, asscaffold,scale,scatter,school,skin,&c.Excluding allsc-words which are of various origins and which are common both to thelit.language and the dialects—such as the words in the above list:scaffold,scale,&c.—it is a remarkable fact that theEnglish Dialect Dictionarycontains no less than 1,154 simplesc-words. This points to one of two things: either the dialects contain a far larger number of Norse words than is generally supposed, or else it is not certain that initialschas under all circumstances become ʃ in native words in the dialects. Words where a finalkhas becometʃin thelit. lang.generally havetʃalso in the dialects, asbleach,flitch,reach,stitch,&c.But in the dialects ofSc.Irel.n.Cy.and parts of then.Midlandsassibilation has not taken place to the same extent as in thelit.language, hence such forms asskrīk,sik,þak,&c.,lit. Eng.screech,such,thatch,&c.
(b)g.Initialghas remained beforeningnat,gnawinne. and s.n.Sc., but it has disappeared in the remaining parts ofSc.Irel.andEng.Initialglhas becomedlin many dialects ofEng., especially inYks.Lan.the Midlands, and thes. and sw.dialects, parallel to the change ofcltotl.
Finalg.O.E.geminatedg, writtencg, has generally becomedȝ[the final sound insedge] in the dialects in such words asbridge,edge,ridge,&c., but as in the case of the change of finalktotʃ, inSc.and the northern parts ofEng.assibilation has not taken place to the same extent as in thelit.language, hence such forms asbrig,rig,seg,&c.,lit. Eng.bridge,ridge,sedge,&c.
(c)h.Initialhhas remained before vowels inSc.Irel.Nhb.and perhaps also in portions ofn.Dur.andn.Cum.In the remaining parts ofEng.it has disappeared, but words originally beginning with a vowel orhoften have anhprefixed when the dialect speaker wishes to express a strongemphasis. The emphatic form ofithas retained thehinSc.andIrel.The emphatic form ofusishɒzinSc.andNhb., the only word in theSc.dialects containing an inorganich. Medial and finalχ[the final sound inSc.loch] has generally becomefin the dialects ofEng.in those words which havefin thelit.language, ascough,laugh,rough,tough, butfalso occurs in many dialects in certain other words besides, asdaftər,slaftər,þoft,þruf,&c.,lit. Eng.daughter,slaughter,thought,through,&c.
To turn now from phonology to accidence, we shall find that here, too, system and rule prevail to a surprising extent.