Author's portraitDean Stanley.
Dean Stanley.
The life of Thomas Becket, and his tragic death, have furnished themes for many noble contributions to English literature. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Dean of Westminster, has written of him, in a very impartial and trustworthy manner, in his "Historical Memoirs of Canterbury" from which the above extract is taken. The poet Tennyson, late in life, composed a tragedy entitled "Becket" which portrays in a vivid, poetical manner the most striking scenes in the career of the great archbishop. James Anthony Froude, in "Short Stories on Great Subjects," has written a charming and instructive essay on the "Life and Times of Thomas Becket"; and Professor Freeman has presented us with a similar historical study in his "Saint Thomas of Canterbury." It may also be observed that Chaucer's immortal work, "The Canterbury Tales," depends for its connecting thread upon the once general custom of making pilgrimages to the tomb of Becket.
Author's portraitEdward Everett.
Edward Everett.
Methinks I see one solitary, adventurous vessel, the "Mayflower," of a forlorn hope, freighted with the prospects of a future state, and bound across the unknown sea. I behold it pursuing, with a thousand misgivings, the uncertain, the tedious voyage. Suns rise and set, and weeks and months pass, and winter surprises them on the deep, but brings them not the sight of the wished-for shore. I see them now, scantily supplied with provisions, crowded almost to suffocation, in their ill-stored prison, delayed by calms, pursuing a circuitous route,—and now, driven in fury before the raging tempest, on the high and giddy waves. The awful voice of the storm brawls through the rigging.
The laboring masts seem straining from their base; the dismal sound of the pumps is heard; the ship leaps, as it were, madly, from billow to billow; the ocean breaks, and settles with engulfing floods over the floating deck, and beats with deadening, shivering weight, against the staggering vessel.
I see them escape from these perils, pursuing their all but desperate undertaking, and landed at last, after a five months' passage, on the ice-clad rocks of Plymouth,—weak and weary from the voyage, poorly armed, scantilyprovisioned, without shelter, without means, surrounded by hostile tribes.
Shut now the volume of history, and tell me, on any principle of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers? Tell me, man of military science, in how many months were they all swept off by the thirty savage tribes, enumerated within the early limits of New England?
Tell me, politician, how long did a shadow of a colony on which your conventions and treaties had not smiled, languish on the distant coast? Student of history, compare for me the baffled projects, the deserted settlements, the abandoned adventures of other times, and find the parallel of this.
Was it the winter's storm, beating upon the houseless heads of women and children? was it hard labor and spare meals? was it disease? was it the tomahawk? was it the deep malady of a blighted hope, a ruined enterprise, and a broken heart, aching in its last moments at the recollection of the loved and left, beyond the sea? was it some, or all of these united, that hurried this forsaken company to their melancholy fate?
And is it possible, that neither of these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud of hope? Is it possible, that from a beginning so feeble, so frail, so worthy not so much of admiration as of pity, there has gone forth a progress so steady, a growth so wonderful, an expansion so ample, a reality so important, a promise, yet to be fulfilled, so glorious?
—Edward Everett.
Watching the ship leaveFrom the Painting by A. W. Bayes. Engraved by E. Heinemann.The Departure of the Mayflower.
From the Painting by A. W. Bayes. Engraved by E. Heinemann.The Departure of the Mayflower.
The breaking waves dashed highOn a stern and rock-bound coast,And the trees against a stormy sky,Their giant branches tossed.And the heavy night hung darkThe hills and waters o'er,When a band of exiles moored their barkOn the wild New England shore.Not as the conqueror comes,They, the true-hearted, came;Not with the roll of the stirring drums,And the trumpet that sings of fame.Not as the flying come,In silence and in fear;They shook the depths of the desert gloomWith their hymns of lofty cheer.Amidst the storm they sang,And the stars heard, and the sea:And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rangTo the anthem of the free!The ocean eagle soaredFrom his nest by the white wave's foam:And the rocking pines of the forest roared,—This was their welcome home!There were men with hoary hair,Amidst that pilgrim band;Why hadtheycome to wither there,Away from their childhood's land?There was woman's fearless eye,Lit by her deep love's truth;There was manhood's brow serenely high,And the fiery heart of youth.What sought they thus afar?Bright jewels of the mine?The wealth of seas, the spoils of war?—They sought a faith's pure shrine!Ay! call it holy ground,The soil where first they trod:They have left unstained what there they found,Freedom to worship God.—Felicia Hemans.
The breaking waves dashed highOn a stern and rock-bound coast,And the trees against a stormy sky,Their giant branches tossed.
And the heavy night hung darkThe hills and waters o'er,When a band of exiles moored their barkOn the wild New England shore.
Not as the conqueror comes,They, the true-hearted, came;Not with the roll of the stirring drums,And the trumpet that sings of fame.
Not as the flying come,In silence and in fear;They shook the depths of the desert gloomWith their hymns of lofty cheer.
Amidst the storm they sang,And the stars heard, and the sea:And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rangTo the anthem of the free!
The ocean eagle soaredFrom his nest by the white wave's foam:And the rocking pines of the forest roared,—This was their welcome home!
There were men with hoary hair,Amidst that pilgrim band;Why hadtheycome to wither there,Away from their childhood's land?
There was woman's fearless eye,Lit by her deep love's truth;There was manhood's brow serenely high,And the fiery heart of youth.
What sought they thus afar?Bright jewels of the mine?The wealth of seas, the spoils of war?—They sought a faith's pure shrine!
Ay! call it holy ground,The soil where first they trod:They have left unstained what there they found,Freedom to worship God.—Felicia Hemans.
—Felicia Hemans.
Patriots have toiled, and in their country's causeBled nobly; and their deeds, as they deserveReceive proud recompense. We give in chargeTheir names to the sweet lyre. The historic Muse,Proud of the treasure, marches with it downTo latest times; and Sculpture, in her turn,Gives bond in stone and ever-during brassTo guard them, and to immortalize her trust.—William Cowper.
Patriots have toiled, and in their country's causeBled nobly; and their deeds, as they deserveReceive proud recompense. We give in chargeTheir names to the sweet lyre. The historic Muse,Proud of the treasure, marches with it downTo latest times; and Sculpture, in her turn,Gives bond in stone and ever-during brassTo guard them, and to immortalize her trust.—William Cowper.
—William Cowper.
The robin is perhaps the best known of all our birds. The name is so prominent in children's stories, in folklore, in poetry, and in general literature, that even town children who have never seen the bird know it by name; but to many grown people, even those who have lived all their lives in the country, the robin is not familiar as a winter bird. It is known to come and go, it is true, but is supposed to be merely in transit, and just where the observer happens to be is not its abiding place. This impression is due to lack of observation, for the birds are as well disposed towards your thicket and cedar trees as those of some far-off neighbor.
This crystal-clear, cold January day, with the mercury almost at zero, I found the robins on the south hillside, and seldom have they shown to better advantage. One was perched in a sapling beech to which the leaves still clung. It chirped at times so that its companions could hear it, and was answered by them, as well as by the nuthatches, a tree creeper, some sparrows, and a winter wren.
It was a cozy, warm spot wherein these birds had gathered, which, strangely enough, was filled with music even when every bird was mute. This robin was half concealed among the crisp beech leaves, and these—not the birds about them—were singing. The breeze caused them to tremble violently, and their thin edges were as harp strings, the wiry sound produced being smoothed by the crisp rattling caused by the leaves' rapid contact with each other.
It was much like the click of butterflies' wings, but greatly exaggerated. A simple sound, but a sweet, wholesome one that made me think less of the winter's rigor and recalled the recent warm autumnal days. They were singing leaves, and the robin watched them closely as he stood near by, and chirped at times, as if to encourage them. Altogether it made a pretty picture, one of those that human skill has not yet transferred to a printed page; and our winter sunshine is full of just such beauty.
How incomprehensible it is that any one should speak of thefewrobins that venture to remain! Flocks of a hundred or more are not uncommon in the depth of winter, and this recalls the fact that at this time of year robins are never alone. It may appear so for a time, but when the bird you are watching is ready to move on, his call will be answered by others that you have not seen, and half a dozen at least will fly off to new scenes.
This is often noticed on a much larger scale when we flush robins in a field. They are generally widely scattered, and, go where you will, there will be one or two hopping before you; but when one takes alarm, the danger cry is heard by all, and a great flock will gather in the air in an incredibly short time.
Robins are not lovers of frozen ground; they know where the earth resists frost, down in the marshy meadows, and there they congregate in the dreary midwinter afternoons, after spending the morning feeding upon berries. I have seen them picking those of the cedar, poison ivy, green brier, and even the seedy, withered fruit of the poke; but at times this question of food supply mustbe a difficult problem to solve, and then they leave us for a while, until pleasanter weather prevails, when they venture back.
In April, when the chill of winter is no longer in its bones, the robin becomes prominent, and the more so because of the noise it makes. It sings fairly well, and early in the morning there is a world of suggestiveness in the ringing notes. The song is loud, declamatory, and acceptable more for the pleasant thoughts it occasions than for the actual melody. We are always glad to hear the robins, but never for the same reason that we listen to a wood thrush. Of course there are exceptions.
With the close of the nesting season—and this extends well into the summer—much of the attractiveness of the bird disappears. As individual members of great loose flocks that fret the upper air with an incessant chirping, they offer little to entertain us even when the less hardy minstrels of the summer have sought their southern homes.
It is true that they add something to the picture of a dreamy October afternoon when the mellow sunlight tips the wilted grasses with dull gold. They restore for the time the summertide activity of the meadows when with golden-winged woodpeckers they chase the crickets in the close-cropped pastures, but they are soon forgotten if a song sparrow sings or a wary hawk screams among the clouds. Robins are always welcome, but never more so than when they chatter, on an April morning, of the near future with its buds and blossoms.
—From "Bird-Land Echoes," by Charles Conrad Abbott.
A good ornithologist should be able to distinguish birds by their air as well as by their colors and shape, on the wing as well as on the ground; and in the bush as well as in the hand. For though it must not be said that every species of bird has a manner peculiar to itself, yet there is somewhat in mostgenera, at least, that at first sight discriminates them, and enables a judicious observer to pronounce upon them with some certainty.
Thus kites and buzzards sail round in circles with wings expanded and motionless; and it is from their gliding manner that the former are still called in the north of England gleads, from the Saxon verbglidan, to glide. Hen harriers fly low over the meadows or fields of corn, and beat the ground regularly like a pointer or setting dog. Owls move in a buoyant manner, as if lighter than the air; they seem to want ballast.
There is a peculiarity belonging to ravens that must draw the attention even of the most incurious—they spend all their leisure time in striking and cuffing each other on the wing in a kind of playful skirmish; and, when they move from one place to another, frequently turn on their backs with a loud croak, and seem to be falling to the ground. When this odd gesture betides them, they are scratching themselves with one foot, and thus lose the center of gravity. Rooks sometimes dive and tumble in a frolicsome manner; crows and daws swagger in their walk; woodpeckers fly with a wavy motion, opening and closing their wings at every stroke,and so are always rising or falling in curves. All of this genus use their tails, which incline downward, as a support while they run up trees. Parrots, like all other hooked-clawed birds, walk awkwardly, and make use of their bill as a third foot, climbing and descending with ridiculous caution.
All the gallinæ parade and walk gracefully, and run nimbly, but fly with difficulty, with an impetuous whirring, and in a straight line. Magpies and jays flutter with powerless wings, and make no dispatch; herons seem encumbered with too much sail for their light bodies, but these vast hollow wings are necessary in carrying burdens, such as large fishes, and the like; pigeons, and particularly the sort called smiters, have a way of clashing their wings, the one against the other, over their backs with a loud snap; another variety, called tumblers, turn themselves over in the air.
The kingfisher darts along like an arrow; fern owls, or goatsuckers, glance in the dusk over the tops of trees like a meteor; swallows sweep over the surface of the ground and water, and distinguish themselves by rapid turns and quick evolutions; swifts dash round in circles; and the bank martin moves with frequent vacillations like a butterfly.
Most small birds hop; but wagtails and larks walk, moving their legs alternately. All the duck kind waddle; divers and auks walk as if fettered, and stand erect, on their tails. Geese and cranes, and most wild fowls, move in figured flights, often changing their position.
—From "The Natural History of Selbourne," by Gilbert White.
Let us trace a river to its source. Beginning where it empties itself into the sea, and following it backwards, we find it from time to time joined by tributaries which swell its waters. The river of course becomes smaller as these tributaries are passed. It shrinks first to a brook, then to a stream; this again divides itself into a number of smaller streamlets, ending in mere threads of water. These constitute the source of the river, and are usually found among hills.
Author's portraitJohn Tyndall.
John Tyndall.
Thus, the Severn has its source in the Welsh mountains; the Thames in the Cotswold Hills; the Missouri in the Rocky Mountains; and the Amazon in the Andes of Peru.
But it is quite plain that we have not yet reached the real beginning of the rivers. Whence do the earliest streams derive their water? A brief residence among the mountains would prove to you that they are fed by rains. In dry weather you would find the streams feeble, sometimes, indeed, quite dried up. In wet weather you would see them foaming torrents. In general these streams lose themselves as little threads of water upon the hillsides; but sometimes you may trace a river to a definite spring. But you very soon assure yourself that such springs arealso fed by rain, which has percolated through the rocks or soil, and which, through some orifice that it has found or formed, comes to the light of day.
But we can not end here. Whence comes the rain that forms the mountain streams? Observation enables you to answer the question. Rain does not come from a clear sky. It comes from clouds.
But what are clouds? Is there nothing you are acquainted with which they resemble? You discover at once a likeness between them and the condensed steam of a locomotive. At every puff of the engine a cloud is projected into the air.
Watch the cloud sharply. You notice that it first forms at a little distance from the top of the funnel. Give close attention and you will sometimes see a perfectly clear space between the funnel and the cloud. Through that clear space the thing which makes the cloud must pass. What then is this thing which at one moment is transparent and invisible, and at the next moment visible as a dense opaque cloud?
It is thesteamorvapor of waterfrom the boiler. Within the boiler this steam is transparent and invisible; but to keep it in this invisible state a heat would be required as great as that within the boiler. When the vapor mingles with the cold air above the hot funnel, it ceases to be vapor. Every bit of steam shrinks, when chilled, to a much more minute particle of water. The liquid particles thus produced form a kind ofwater dustof exceeding fineness, which floats in the air, and is called acloud.
Watch the cloud banner from the funnel of a running locomotive: you see it growing gradually less dense. It finally melts away altogether, and, if you continue your observations, you will not fail to notice that the speed of its disappearance depends on the character of the day. In moist weather the cloud hangs long and lazily in the air; in dry weather it is rapidly licked up. What has become of it? It has been reconverted into true invisible vapor. Thedrierthe air, and thehotterthe air, the greater is the amount of cloud which can be thus dissolved in it.
Make the lid of a kettle air-tight, and permit the steam to issue from the spout; a cloud is formed in all respects similar to that which issues from the funnel of the locomotive. To produce the cloud, in the case of the locomotive and the kettle,heatis necessary. By heating the water we first convert it into steam, and then by chilling the steam we convert it into cloud. Is there any fire in nature which produces the clouds of our atmosphere? There is—the fire of the sun.
By tracing the course of a river, we find that both its beginning and its ending are in the sea. All its water is derived from the sea, and to the sea it returns its floods. But if we seek for its causes, we find that its beginning and its ending are in the sun. For it is the fire of the sun that produces the clouds from which the water of the river is derived, and it is the same fire of the sun that dries up its stream.
—Adapted from "Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers," by John Tyndall.
Author's portraitAbraham Lincoln.
Abraham Lincoln.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of the war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that their nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honoreddead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Author's portraitJoseph Rodman Drake.
Joseph Rodman Drake.
When Freedom, from her mountain height,Unfurled her standard to the air,She tore the azure robe of night,And set the stars of glory there;She mingled with its gorgeous dyesThe milky baldric of the skies,And striped its pure, celestial whiteWith streakings of the morning light;Then from his mansion in the sunShe called her eagle bearer down,And gave into his mighty handThe symbol of her chosen land.Flag of the brave! thy folds shall fly,The sign of hope and triumph high!When speaks the signal trumpet tone,And the long line comes gleaming on(Ere yet the life blood, warm and wet,Has dimmed the glistening bayonet),Each soldier's eye shall brightly turnTo where thy sky-born glories burn,And as his springing steps advance,Catch war and vengeance from thy glance.And when the cannon mouthings loudHeave in wild wreaths the battle shroud,And gory sabers rise and fall,Like shoots of flame on midnight's pall,Then shall thy meteor glances glow,And cowering foes shall sink beneathEach gallant arm that strikes belowThat lovely messenger of death.Flag of the seas! on ocean's waveThy stars shall glitter o'er the brave;When death, careering on the gale,Sweeps darkly round the bellied sail,And frighted waves rush wildly backBefore the broadside's reeling rack,Each dying wanderer of the seaShall look at once to heaven and thee,And smile to see thy splendors flyIn triumph o'er his closing eye.Flag of the free heart's hope and home,By angel hands to valor given,Thy stars have lit the welkin dome,And all thy hues were born in heaven.Forever float that standard sheet!Where breathes the foe, but falls before us,With Freedom's soil beneath our feet,And Freedom's banner streaming o'er us!—Joseph Rodman Drake.
When Freedom, from her mountain height,Unfurled her standard to the air,She tore the azure robe of night,And set the stars of glory there;She mingled with its gorgeous dyesThe milky baldric of the skies,And striped its pure, celestial whiteWith streakings of the morning light;Then from his mansion in the sunShe called her eagle bearer down,And gave into his mighty handThe symbol of her chosen land.
Flag of the brave! thy folds shall fly,The sign of hope and triumph high!When speaks the signal trumpet tone,And the long line comes gleaming on(Ere yet the life blood, warm and wet,Has dimmed the glistening bayonet),Each soldier's eye shall brightly turnTo where thy sky-born glories burn,And as his springing steps advance,Catch war and vengeance from thy glance.And when the cannon mouthings loudHeave in wild wreaths the battle shroud,And gory sabers rise and fall,Like shoots of flame on midnight's pall,Then shall thy meteor glances glow,And cowering foes shall sink beneathEach gallant arm that strikes belowThat lovely messenger of death.Flag of the seas! on ocean's waveThy stars shall glitter o'er the brave;When death, careering on the gale,Sweeps darkly round the bellied sail,And frighted waves rush wildly backBefore the broadside's reeling rack,Each dying wanderer of the seaShall look at once to heaven and thee,And smile to see thy splendors flyIn triumph o'er his closing eye.
Flag of the free heart's hope and home,By angel hands to valor given,Thy stars have lit the welkin dome,And all thy hues were born in heaven.Forever float that standard sheet!Where breathes the foe, but falls before us,With Freedom's soil beneath our feet,And Freedom's banner streaming o'er us!—Joseph Rodman Drake.
—Joseph Rodman Drake.
Author's portraitCharlotte M. Yonge.
Charlotte M. Yonge.
The grandest and most renowned of all ancient amphitheaters is the Coliseum at Rome. It was built by Vespasian and his son Titus, the conquerors of Jerusalem, in a valley in the midst of the seven hills of Rome. The captive Jews were forced to labor at it; and the materials—granite outside, and a softer stone within—are so solid, and so admirably put together, that still, at the end of eighteen centuries, it has scarcely even become a ruin, but remains one of the greatest wonders of Rome. Five acres of ground were inclosed within the oval of its outer wall, which outside rises perpendicularly in tiers of arches one above another. Within, the galleries of seats projected forwards, each tier coming out far beyond the one above it; so thatbetween the lowest and the outer wall there was room for a great variety of chambers, passages, and vaults around the central space, called the arena.
Altogether, when full, this huge building held no fewer than 87,000 spectators! It had no roof; but when there was rain, or if the sun was too hot, the sailors in the porticoes unfurled awnings that ran along upon ropes, and formed a covering of silk and gold tissue over the whole. Purple was the favorite color for this veil, because, when the sun shone through it, it cast such beautiful rosy tints on the snowy arena and the white purple-edged togas of the Roman citizens.
When the emperor had seated himself and given the signal, the sports began. Sometimes a rope dancing elephant would begin the entertainment, by mounting even to the summit of the building and descending by a cord. Or a lion came forth with a jeweled crown on his head, a diamond necklace round his neck, his mane plaited with gold, and his claws gilded, and played a hundred pretty gentle antics with a little hare that danced fearlessly within his grasp.
Sometimes water was let into the arena, a ship sailed in, and falling to pieces in the midst, sent a crowd of strange animals swimming in all directions. Sometimes the ground opened, and trees came growing up through it, bearing golden fruit. Or the beautiful old tale of Orpheus was acted: these trees would follow the harp and song of a musician; but—to make the whole part complete—it was no mere play, but in real earnest, that the Orpheus of the piece fell a prey to live bears.
For the Coliseum had not been built for such harmless spectacles as those first described. The fierce Romans wanted to be excited and to feel themselves strongly stirred; and, presently, the doors of the pits and dens around the arena were thrown open, and absolutely savage beasts were let loose upon one another—rhinoceroses and tigers, bulls and lions, leopards and wild boars—while the people watched with ferocious curiosity to see the various kinds of attack and defense, their ears at the same time being delighted, instead of horror-struck, by the roars and howls of the noble creatures whose courage was thus misused.
A Roman ruinThe Coliseum at the Present Day.
The Coliseum at the Present Day.
Wild beasts tearing each other to pieces might, one would think, satisfy any taste for horror; but the spectators needed even nobler game to be set before their favorite monsters:—men were brought forward to confront them. Some of these were, at first, in full armor, and fought hard, generally with success. Or hunters came, almost unarmed, and gained the victory by swiftness and dexterity, throwing a piece of cloth over a lion's head, or disconcerting him by putting their fist down his throat. But it was not only skill, but death, that the Romans loved to see; and condemned criminals and deserters were reserved to feast the lions, and to entertain the populace with their various kinds of death. Among those condemned was many a Christianmartyr, who witnessed a good confession before the savage-eyed multitude around the arena, and "met the lion's gory mane" with a calm resolution and a hopeful joy that the lookers-on could not understand. To see a Christian die, with upward gaze, and hymns of joy on his tongue, was the most strange and unaccountable sight the Coliseum could offer; and it was therefore the choicest, and reserved for the last of the spectacles in which the brute creation had a part.
The carcasses were dragged off with hooks, the bloodstained sand was covered with a fresh green layer, perfume was wafted in stronger clouds, and a procession come forward—tall, well-made men, in the prime of their strength. Some carried a sword and a lasso, others a trident and a net; some were in light armor, others in the full, heavy equipment of a soldier; some on horseback, some in chariots, some on foot. They marched in, and made their obeisance to the emperor; and with one voice their greeting sounded through the building: "Hail, Cæsar; those about to die salute thee!" They were the gladiators—the swordsmen trained to fight to the death to amuse the populace.
Victims in the arenaFrom the Painting by J. L. Gerome. Engraved by Henry Wolf.The Last Prayer—Christian Martyrs in the Coliseum.
From the Painting by J. L. Gerome. Engraved by Henry Wolf.The Last Prayer—Christian Martyrs in the Coliseum.
Fights of all sorts took place,—the light-armed soldier and the netsman—the lasso and the javelin—the two heavy-armed warriors,—all combinations of single combat, and sometimes a general mêlée. When a gladiator wounded his adversary, he shouted to the spectators, "He has it!" and looked up to know whether he should kill or spare. When the people held up their thumbs, the conquered was left to recover, if he could; if they turnedthem down, he was to die; and if he showed any reluctance to present his throat for the deathblow, there was a scornful shout, "Receive the steel!"
"I see before me the gladiator lie:He leans upon his hand; his manly browConsents to death, but conquers agony;And his drooped head sinks gradually low;And through his side the last drops, ebbing slowFrom the red gash, fall heavy, one by one,Like the first of a thunder-shower; and nowThe arena swims around him—he is gone,Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won."
"I see before me the gladiator lie:He leans upon his hand; his manly browConsents to death, but conquers agony;And his drooped head sinks gradually low;And through his side the last drops, ebbing slowFrom the red gash, fall heavy, one by one,Like the first of a thunder-shower; and nowThe arena swims around him—he is gone,Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won."
Christianity, however, worked its way upwards, and at last was professed by the emperor on his throne. Persecution came to an end, and no more martyrs fed the beasts in the Coliseum. The Christian emperors endeavored to prevent any more shows where cruelty and death formed the chief interest, and no truly religious person could endure the spectacle; but custom and love of excitement prevailed even against the emperor. They went on for fully a hundred years after Rome had, in name, become a Christian city.
Meantime the enemies of Rome were coming nearer and nearer. Alaric, the great chief of the Goths, led his forces into Italy, and threatened the city itself. Honorius, the emperor, was a cowardly, almost idiotic boy; but his brave general, Stilicho, assembled his forces, metthe Goths, and gave them a complete defeat, on Easter day of the year 403. He pursued them to the mountains, and for that time saved Rome.
In the joy of victory, the Roman Senate invited the conqueror and his ward Honorius to enter the city in triumph, at the opening of the new year, with the white steeds, purple robes, and vermilion cheeks with which, of old, victorious generals were welcomed at Rome. The churches were visited instead of the Temple of Jupiter, and there was no murder of the captives; but Roman bloodthirstiness was not yet allayed, and, after the procession had been completed, the Coliseum shows commenced, innocently at first, with races on foot, on horseback, and in chariots; then followed a grand hunt of beasts turned loose in the arena; and next a sword dance. But after the sword dance came the arraying of swordsmen, with no blunted weapons, but with sharp spears and swords—a gladiator combat in full earnest. The people, enchanted, applauded with shouts of ecstasy this gratification of their savage tastes.
Suddenly, however, there was an interruption. A rude, roughly robed man, bareheaded and barefooted, had sprung into the arena, and, waving back the gladiators, began to call aloud upon the people to cease from the shedding of innocent blood, and not to requite God's mercy, in turning away the sword of the enemy, by encouraging murder. Shouts, howls, cries, broke in upon his words; this was no place for preachings,—the old customs of Rome should be observed,—"Back, old man!"—"On, gladiators!"
The gladiators thrust aside the meddler, and rushed to the attack. He still stood between, holding them apart, striving in vain to be heard. "Sedition! sedition!"—"Down with him!"—was the cry; and the prefect in authority himself added his voice. The gladiators, enraged at interference with their vocation, cut him down. Stones, or whatever came to hand, rained upon him from the furious people, and he perished in the midst of the arena! He lay dead; and then the people began to reflect upon what had been done.
His dress showed that he was one of the hermits who had vowed themselves to a life of prayer and self-denial, and who were greatly reverenced, even by the most thoughtless. The few who had previously seen him, told that he had come from the wilds of Asia on a pilgrimage, to visit the shrines and keep his Christmas at Rome. They knew that he was a holy man—no more. But his spirit had been stirred by the sight of thousands flocking to see men slaughter one another, and in his simple-hearted zeal he had resolved to stop the cruelty, or die.
He had died, but not in vain. His work was done. The shock of such a death before their eyes turned the hearts of the people; they saw the wickedness and cruelty to which they had blindly surrendered themselves; and since the day when the hermit died in the Coliseum, there has never been another fight of gladiators. The custom was utterly abolished; and one habitual crime at least was wiped from the earth by the self-devotion of one humble, obscure, and nameless man.
—From "A Book of Golden Deeds," by Charlotte Yonge.
The reader has already become somewhat acquainted with the marvelous history of King Arthur, and has read about the poems and romances by which the memory of his life and exploits have been preserved. He has also read the mythical account of the King's last hours on earth as recorded in the quaint old romance written by Sir Thomas Malory. Here he may read another rendering of the same story, written in grand and beautiful poetic form by Alfred Tennyson. In the "Idylls of the King," Lord Tennyson has given us a complete history of Arthur and of the brave knights and fair ladies who lived at his court. These poems are among the noblest ever written in our language. Turn now to the last story in "School Reading by Grades—Fifth Year," and compare each passage in that brief narrative with its corresponding passage in the following poem.
So all day long the noise of battle roll'dAmong the mountains by the winter sea;Until King Arthur's Table, man by man,Had fall'n in Lyonesse about their lord,King Arthur. Then, because his wound was deep,The bold Sir Bedivere uplifted him,Sir Bedivere, the last of all his knights,And bore him to a chapel nigh the field,A broken chancel with a broken cross,That stood on a dark strait of barren land.On one side lay the Ocean, and on oneLay a great water, and the moon was full.Then spake King Arthur to Sir Bedivere:"The sequel of to-day unsolders allThe goodliest fellowship of famous knightsWhereof this world holds record. Such a sleepThey sleep—the men I loved. I think that weShall never more, at any future time,Delight our souls with talk of knightly deeds,Walking about the gardens and the hallsOf Camelot, as in the days that were.I perish by this people which I made,—Tho' Merlin sware that I should come againTo rule once more; but let what will be, be,I am so deeply smitten thro' the helmThat without help I can not last till morn.Thou therefore take my brand Excalibur,Which was my pride: for thou rememberest howIn those old days, one summer noon, an armRose up from out the bosom of the lake,Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,Holding the sword—and how I row'd acrossAnd took it, and have worn it, like a king:And, wheresoever I am sung or toldIn after time, this also shall be known:But now delay not: take Excalibur,And fling him far into the middle mere;Watch what thou seëst and lightly bring me word."To him replied the bold Sir Bedivere:"It is not meet, Sir King, to leave thee thus,Aidless, alone, and smitten thro' the helm.A little thing may harm a wounded man.Yet I thy hest will all perform at full,Watch what I see, and lightly bring thee word."So saying, from the ruin'd shrine he stept,And in the moon athwart the place of tombs,Where lay the mighty bones of ancient men,Old knights, and over them the sea wind sangShrill, chill, with flakes of foam. He, stepping downBy zigzag paths, and juts of pointed rock,Came on the shining levels of the lake.There drew he forth the brand Excalibur,And o'er him, drawing it, the winter moon,Brightening the skirts of a long cloud, ran forthAnd sparkled keen with frost against the hilt:For all the haft twinkled with diamond sparks,Myriads of topaz lights, and jacinth workOf subtlest jewelry. He gazed so longThat both his eyes were dazzled, as he stood,This way and that dividing the swift mind,In act to throw: but at the last it seem'dBetter to leave Excalibur conceal'dThere in the many-knotted waterflags,That whistled stiff and dry about the marge.So strode he back slow to the wounded King.Then spake King Arthur to Sir Bedivere:"Hast thou perform'd my mission which I gave?What is it thou hast seen? or what hast heard?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"I heard the ripple washing in the reeds,And the wild water lapping on the crag."To whom replied King Arthur, faint and pale:"Thou hast betray'd thy nature and thy name,Not rendering true answer, as beseem'dThy fëalty, nor like a noble knight:For surer sign had follow'd, either hand,Or voice, or else a motion of the mere.This is a shameful thing for men to lie.Yet now I charge thee, quickly go again,As thou art lief and dear, and do the thingI bade thee, watch, and lightly bring me word."Then went Sir Bedivere the second timeAcross the ridge, and paced beside the mere,Counting the dewy pebbles, fix'd in thought;But when he saw the wonder of the hilt,How curiously and strangely chased, he smoteHis palms together, and he cried aloud:"And if indeed I cast the brand away,Surely a precious thing, one worthy note,Should thus be lost for ever from the earth,Which might have pleased the eyes of many men.What good should follow this, if this were done?What harm, undone? deep harm to disobey,Seeing obedience is the bond of rule.Were it well to obey then, if a king demandAn act unprofitable, against himself?The King is sick, and knows not what he does.What record, or what relic of my lordShould be to after time, but empty breathAnd rumors of a doubt? but were this kept,Stored in some treasure-house of mighty kings,Some one might show it at a joust of arms,Saying, 'King Arthur's sword, Excalibur,Wrought by the lonely maiden of the Lake.Nine years she wrought it, sitting in the deepsUpon the hidden bases of the hills.'So might some old man speak in the after timeTo all the people, winning reverence.But now much honor and much fame were lost."So spake he, clouded with his own conceit,—And hid Excalibur the second time,And so strode back slow to the wounded King.Then spoke King Arthur, breathing heavily:"What is it thou hast seen? or what hast heard?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"I heard the water lapping on the crag,And the long ripple washing in the reeds."To whom replied King Arthur, much in wrath:"Ah, miserable and unkind, untrue,Unknightly, traitor-hearted! Woe is me!Authority forgets a dying king,Laid widow'd of the power in his eyeThat bow'd the will. I see thee what thou art,For thou, the latest-left of all my knights,In whom should meet the offices of all,Thou wouldst betray me for the precious hilt;Either from lust of gold, or like a girlValuing the giddy pleasure of the eyes.Yet, for a man may fail in duty twice,And the third time may prosper, get thee hence:But, if thou spare to fling Excalibur,I will arise and slay thee with my hands."Then quickly rose Sir Bedivere, and ran,And, leaping down the ridges lightly, plungedAmong the bulrush beds, and clutch'd the sword,And strongly wheel'd and threw it. The great brandMade lightnings in the splendor of the moon,And flashing round and round, and whirl'd in an arch,Shot like a streamer of the northern morn,Seen where the moving isles of winter shockBy night, with noises of the Northern Sea.So flash'd and fell the brand Excalibur:But ere he dipt the surface, rose an armClothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,And caught him by the hilt, and brandish'd himThree times, and drew him under in the mere.And lightly went the other to the King.Then spoke King Arthur, drawing thicker breath:"Now see I by thine eyes that this is done.Speak out: what is it thou hast heard, or seen?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"Sir King, I closed mine eyelids, lest the gemsShould blind my purpose, for I never saw,Nor shall see, here or elsewhere, till I die,Not tho' I live three lives of mortal men,So great a miracle as yonder hilt.Then with both hands I flung him, wheeling him;But when I look'd again, behold an arm,Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,That caught him by the hilt, and brandish'd himThree times and drew him under in the mere."And answer made King Arthur, breathing hard:"My end draws nigh; 'tis time that I were gone.Make broad thy shoulders to receive my weight,And bear me to the margin; yet I fearMy wound hath taken cold, and I shall die."So saying, from the pavement he half rose,Slowly, with pain, reclining on his arm,And looking wistfully with wide blue eyesAs in a picture. Him Sir BedivereRemorsefully regarded thro' his tears,And would have spoken, but he found not words;Then took with care, and kneeling on one knee,O'er both his shoulders drew the languid hands,And rising bore him thro' the place of tombs.But, as he walk'd, King Arthur panted hard,Like one that feels a nightmare on his bedWhen all the house is mute. So sigh'd the King,Muttering and murmuring at his ear, "Quick, quick!I fear it is too late, and I shall die."But the other swiftly strode from ridge to ridge,Clothed with his breath, and looking as he walk'd,Larger than human on the frozen hills.He heard the deep behind him, and a cryBefore. His own thought drove him, like a goad.Dry clash'd his harness in the icy cavesAnd barren chasms, and all to left and rightThe bare black cliff clang'd round him, as he basedHis feet on jets of slippery crag that rangSharp-smitten with the dint of armed heels—And on a sudden, lo! the level lake,And the long glories of the winter moon.Then saw they how there hove a dusky barge,Dark as a funeral scarf from stem to stern,Beneath them; and descending they were wareThat all the decks were dense with stately formsBlack-stoled, black-hooded, like a dream—by theseThree Queens with crowns of gold—and from them roseA cry that shiver'd to the tingling stars,And, as it were one voice, an agonyOf lamentation, like a wind, that shrillsAll night in a waste land, where no one comes,Or hath come, since the making of the world.Then murmur'd Arthur, "Place me in the barge."So to the barge they came. There those three QueensPut forth their hands, and took the King, and wept....Then loudly cried the bold Sir Bedivere:"Ah! my Lord Arthur, whither shall I go?Where shall I hide my forehead and my eyes?For now I see the true old times are dead,When every morning brought a noble chance,And every chance brought out a noble knight....But now the whole Round Table is dissolvedWhich was an image of the mighty world,And I, the last, go forth companionless,And the days darken round me, and the years,Among new men, strange faces, other minds."And slowly answered Arthur from the barge:"The old order changeth, yielding place to new,And God fulfills himself in many ways,Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.Comfort thyself; what comfort is in me?I have lived my life, and that which I have doneMay He within himself make pure! but thou,If thou shouldst never see my face again,Pray for my soul. More things are wrought by prayerThan this world dreams of. Wherefore, let thy voiceRise like a fountain for me night and day.For what are men better than sheep or goatsThat nourish a blind life within the brain,If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayerBoth for themselves and those who call them friends?For so the whole round earth is every wayBound by gold chains about the feet of God.But now farewell. I am going a long wayWith these thou seëst—if indeed I go(For all my mind is clouded with a doubt)—To the island-valley of AvilionWhere falls not hail, or rain, or any snow,Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it liesDeep-meadow'd, happy, fair with orchard lawnsAnd bowery hollows crown'd with summer sea,Where I will heal me of my grievous wound."So said he, and the barge with oar and sailMoved from the brink, like some full-breasted swanThat, fluting a wild carol ere her death,Ruffles her pure cold plume, and takes the floodWith swarthy webs. Long stood Sir BedivereRevolving many memories, till the hullLook'd one black dot against the verge of dawn,And on the mere the wailing died away.—From "The Idylls of the King," by Alfred Tennyson.
So all day long the noise of battle roll'dAmong the mountains by the winter sea;Until King Arthur's Table, man by man,Had fall'n in Lyonesse about their lord,King Arthur. Then, because his wound was deep,The bold Sir Bedivere uplifted him,Sir Bedivere, the last of all his knights,And bore him to a chapel nigh the field,A broken chancel with a broken cross,That stood on a dark strait of barren land.On one side lay the Ocean, and on oneLay a great water, and the moon was full.Then spake King Arthur to Sir Bedivere:"The sequel of to-day unsolders allThe goodliest fellowship of famous knightsWhereof this world holds record. Such a sleepThey sleep—the men I loved. I think that weShall never more, at any future time,Delight our souls with talk of knightly deeds,Walking about the gardens and the hallsOf Camelot, as in the days that were.I perish by this people which I made,—Tho' Merlin sware that I should come againTo rule once more; but let what will be, be,I am so deeply smitten thro' the helmThat without help I can not last till morn.Thou therefore take my brand Excalibur,Which was my pride: for thou rememberest howIn those old days, one summer noon, an armRose up from out the bosom of the lake,Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,Holding the sword—and how I row'd acrossAnd took it, and have worn it, like a king:And, wheresoever I am sung or toldIn after time, this also shall be known:But now delay not: take Excalibur,And fling him far into the middle mere;Watch what thou seëst and lightly bring me word."To him replied the bold Sir Bedivere:"It is not meet, Sir King, to leave thee thus,Aidless, alone, and smitten thro' the helm.A little thing may harm a wounded man.Yet I thy hest will all perform at full,Watch what I see, and lightly bring thee word."So saying, from the ruin'd shrine he stept,And in the moon athwart the place of tombs,Where lay the mighty bones of ancient men,Old knights, and over them the sea wind sangShrill, chill, with flakes of foam. He, stepping downBy zigzag paths, and juts of pointed rock,Came on the shining levels of the lake.There drew he forth the brand Excalibur,And o'er him, drawing it, the winter moon,Brightening the skirts of a long cloud, ran forthAnd sparkled keen with frost against the hilt:For all the haft twinkled with diamond sparks,Myriads of topaz lights, and jacinth workOf subtlest jewelry. He gazed so longThat both his eyes were dazzled, as he stood,This way and that dividing the swift mind,In act to throw: but at the last it seem'dBetter to leave Excalibur conceal'dThere in the many-knotted waterflags,That whistled stiff and dry about the marge.So strode he back slow to the wounded King.Then spake King Arthur to Sir Bedivere:"Hast thou perform'd my mission which I gave?What is it thou hast seen? or what hast heard?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"I heard the ripple washing in the reeds,And the wild water lapping on the crag."To whom replied King Arthur, faint and pale:"Thou hast betray'd thy nature and thy name,Not rendering true answer, as beseem'dThy fëalty, nor like a noble knight:For surer sign had follow'd, either hand,Or voice, or else a motion of the mere.This is a shameful thing for men to lie.Yet now I charge thee, quickly go again,As thou art lief and dear, and do the thingI bade thee, watch, and lightly bring me word."Then went Sir Bedivere the second timeAcross the ridge, and paced beside the mere,Counting the dewy pebbles, fix'd in thought;But when he saw the wonder of the hilt,How curiously and strangely chased, he smoteHis palms together, and he cried aloud:"And if indeed I cast the brand away,Surely a precious thing, one worthy note,Should thus be lost for ever from the earth,Which might have pleased the eyes of many men.What good should follow this, if this were done?What harm, undone? deep harm to disobey,Seeing obedience is the bond of rule.Were it well to obey then, if a king demandAn act unprofitable, against himself?The King is sick, and knows not what he does.What record, or what relic of my lordShould be to after time, but empty breathAnd rumors of a doubt? but were this kept,Stored in some treasure-house of mighty kings,Some one might show it at a joust of arms,Saying, 'King Arthur's sword, Excalibur,Wrought by the lonely maiden of the Lake.Nine years she wrought it, sitting in the deepsUpon the hidden bases of the hills.'So might some old man speak in the after timeTo all the people, winning reverence.But now much honor and much fame were lost."So spake he, clouded with his own conceit,—And hid Excalibur the second time,And so strode back slow to the wounded King.Then spoke King Arthur, breathing heavily:"What is it thou hast seen? or what hast heard?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"I heard the water lapping on the crag,And the long ripple washing in the reeds."To whom replied King Arthur, much in wrath:"Ah, miserable and unkind, untrue,Unknightly, traitor-hearted! Woe is me!Authority forgets a dying king,Laid widow'd of the power in his eyeThat bow'd the will. I see thee what thou art,For thou, the latest-left of all my knights,In whom should meet the offices of all,Thou wouldst betray me for the precious hilt;Either from lust of gold, or like a girlValuing the giddy pleasure of the eyes.Yet, for a man may fail in duty twice,And the third time may prosper, get thee hence:But, if thou spare to fling Excalibur,I will arise and slay thee with my hands."Then quickly rose Sir Bedivere, and ran,And, leaping down the ridges lightly, plungedAmong the bulrush beds, and clutch'd the sword,And strongly wheel'd and threw it. The great brandMade lightnings in the splendor of the moon,And flashing round and round, and whirl'd in an arch,Shot like a streamer of the northern morn,Seen where the moving isles of winter shockBy night, with noises of the Northern Sea.So flash'd and fell the brand Excalibur:But ere he dipt the surface, rose an armClothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,And caught him by the hilt, and brandish'd himThree times, and drew him under in the mere.And lightly went the other to the King.Then spoke King Arthur, drawing thicker breath:"Now see I by thine eyes that this is done.Speak out: what is it thou hast heard, or seen?"And answer made the bold Sir Bedivere:"Sir King, I closed mine eyelids, lest the gemsShould blind my purpose, for I never saw,Nor shall see, here or elsewhere, till I die,Not tho' I live three lives of mortal men,So great a miracle as yonder hilt.Then with both hands I flung him, wheeling him;But when I look'd again, behold an arm,Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful,That caught him by the hilt, and brandish'd himThree times and drew him under in the mere."And answer made King Arthur, breathing hard:"My end draws nigh; 'tis time that I were gone.Make broad thy shoulders to receive my weight,And bear me to the margin; yet I fearMy wound hath taken cold, and I shall die."So saying, from the pavement he half rose,Slowly, with pain, reclining on his arm,And looking wistfully with wide blue eyesAs in a picture. Him Sir BedivereRemorsefully regarded thro' his tears,And would have spoken, but he found not words;Then took with care, and kneeling on one knee,O'er both his shoulders drew the languid hands,And rising bore him thro' the place of tombs.But, as he walk'd, King Arthur panted hard,Like one that feels a nightmare on his bedWhen all the house is mute. So sigh'd the King,Muttering and murmuring at his ear, "Quick, quick!I fear it is too late, and I shall die."But the other swiftly strode from ridge to ridge,Clothed with his breath, and looking as he walk'd,Larger than human on the frozen hills.He heard the deep behind him, and a cryBefore. His own thought drove him, like a goad.Dry clash'd his harness in the icy cavesAnd barren chasms, and all to left and rightThe bare black cliff clang'd round him, as he basedHis feet on jets of slippery crag that rangSharp-smitten with the dint of armed heels—And on a sudden, lo! the level lake,And the long glories of the winter moon.Then saw they how there hove a dusky barge,Dark as a funeral scarf from stem to stern,Beneath them; and descending they were wareThat all the decks were dense with stately formsBlack-stoled, black-hooded, like a dream—by theseThree Queens with crowns of gold—and from them roseA cry that shiver'd to the tingling stars,And, as it were one voice, an agonyOf lamentation, like a wind, that shrillsAll night in a waste land, where no one comes,Or hath come, since the making of the world.Then murmur'd Arthur, "Place me in the barge."So to the barge they came. There those three QueensPut forth their hands, and took the King, and wept....Then loudly cried the bold Sir Bedivere:"Ah! my Lord Arthur, whither shall I go?Where shall I hide my forehead and my eyes?For now I see the true old times are dead,When every morning brought a noble chance,And every chance brought out a noble knight....But now the whole Round Table is dissolvedWhich was an image of the mighty world,And I, the last, go forth companionless,And the days darken round me, and the years,Among new men, strange faces, other minds."And slowly answered Arthur from the barge:"The old order changeth, yielding place to new,And God fulfills himself in many ways,Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.Comfort thyself; what comfort is in me?I have lived my life, and that which I have doneMay He within himself make pure! but thou,If thou shouldst never see my face again,Pray for my soul. More things are wrought by prayerThan this world dreams of. Wherefore, let thy voiceRise like a fountain for me night and day.For what are men better than sheep or goatsThat nourish a blind life within the brain,If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayerBoth for themselves and those who call them friends?For so the whole round earth is every wayBound by gold chains about the feet of God.But now farewell. I am going a long wayWith these thou seëst—if indeed I go(For all my mind is clouded with a doubt)—To the island-valley of AvilionWhere falls not hail, or rain, or any snow,Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it liesDeep-meadow'd, happy, fair with orchard lawnsAnd bowery hollows crown'd with summer sea,Where I will heal me of my grievous wound."So said he, and the barge with oar and sailMoved from the brink, like some full-breasted swanThat, fluting a wild carol ere her death,Ruffles her pure cold plume, and takes the floodWith swarthy webs. Long stood Sir BedivereRevolving many memories, till the hullLook'd one black dot against the verge of dawn,And on the mere the wailing died away.—From "The Idylls of the King," by Alfred Tennyson.
—From "The Idylls of the King," by Alfred Tennyson.
To become a good reader, patient and long-continued practice is necessary. We learn to read by much reading and never by the study of formal rules. Nevertheless, a knowledge of the following general principles and definitions may be of some value in assisting the learner to acquire correct habits in the practice of oral reading.
Under this term are included Articulation, Syllabication, and Accent.
Correct articulation requires that each letter, syllable, and word should be clearly and properly pronounced. Incorrect articulation is the result either of careless habits or of natural defects. In either case, it may be largely overcome by persistent and careful drill in the pronunciation of those words in which the greatest difficulty is experienced. Conversation, declamation, calisthenics, singing, and similar exercises should be engaged in, in order to assist in overcoming habits of timidity or diffidence, and to give increased power and flexibility to the vocal organs.
Syllabication and accent are learned by careful observation and by reference, in all cases of doubt, to some standard dictionary.
Correct expression in reading has reference to tone of voice, inflection, pitch, emphasis, all of which are included under modulation.
Tone, or quality of voice, is the kind of sound employed in reading or speaking. A conversational tone is such as is used in ordinary conversation for the expression of quiet or unemotional thoughts. A full tone of voice is used in the expression of high or lofty sentiments, and of feelings of joy, courage, or exultation. A middle tone is used in the rendering of expressions which while not conversational in character are too unimpassioned to require a full tone. A low or subdued tone is used in passages where the sense requires a suppression of sound. The only rule necessary is this:Study so to regulate the tone of voice that it shall always be in harmony with the thoughts expressed.
Inflection is the upward or downward movement of the voice in speaking or reading. There are two inflections: therising inflection, in which the voice slides upward; and thefalling inflection, in which the voice slides downward. Sometimes there is a union of the two inflections upon a single sound or syllable, in order to express surprise, scorn, irony, sorrow, or other strong or peculiar emotion. This union of inflections is calledcircumflex. No rule for inflections can be given which is not subject to numerous exceptions. The movement of the voice, whether upward or downward, is in all cases determined by the thought in the sentence.That inflection should be used which will assist to convey, in the most natural and forcible manner, the meaning intended by the author.
Very closely related to tone and inflection is pitch, by which is meant the degree of elevation of the voice. Pitch may bemiddle,high, orlow. Middle pitch is that which is used in common conversation and in the expression of unemotionalthoughts. Light and joyous emotions and lively narration require a high pitch. Passages expressing sadness, deep joy, dignified serenity of mind, and kindred emotions, require a low pitch. Hence, the only rule to be observed is this:Let the pitch be always in harmony with the sentiments to be expressed.
Emphasis is any change of pitch, or variation of the voice, which serves to call special attention to an important word, syllable, or expression. The only rule that can be given for securing correctness of emphasis is:Be natural.Children, in ordinary conversation, never make mistakes in emphasis. If they are made to understand what they are reading, have not been permitted to imitate incorrect models, and are not hampered by unnecessary rules, they will read as well as they talk. Let reading be but conversation from the book, and not only emphasis, but pitch and inflection will require but little separate attention, and no special rules.
Pauses in reading are necessary to make the meaning clear or to assist in the proper modulation of the voice and therefore in the correct rendering of the sentiments of the author. The former are called grammatical pauses, and are indicated by the marks of punctuation; the latter are called rhetorical pauses, and depend for their correct usage upon the reader's understanding of the thoughts which he is endeavoring to render. In reading poetry, a slight pause is generally proper at the end of each line, and sometimes also at the middle of each line. The latter is called thecæsuralpause. The object of poetic pauses is simply to promote the melody.
Abbott, Charles Conrad, the author of the essay on "The Robin" (page197), is an American writer and naturalist. He was born at Trenton, N. J., in 1843. He is an ardent lover of nature, and has written several delightful books on subjects relating to popular science and outdoor life. Among these are "Birdland Echoes," from which the above-named essay is taken; "A Naturalist's Wanderings about Home," and "Waste Land Wanderings."
Aytoun(ā´toon),William Edmonstoune, the author of the selection entitled "The Pass of Killiecrankie" (page138), was a Scottish lawyer and poet. Born in Edinburgh, 1813; died, 1865. He was for many years one of the editors of "Blackwood's Magazine." He wrote "Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers," "Ballads of Scotland," and other poems.
Blackmore, Richard D., the author of "Lorna Doone," is an English lawyer and novelist. Born in Berkshire, 1825. Besides "Lorna Doone," he has written "Alice Lorraine," "Springhaven," "The Maid of Sker," and several other stories.
Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett, the author of "The Romance of the Swan's Nest" (page98), was an English poet. Born in Durham, England, 1806. In 1846 she married Robert Browning, and during the rest of her life resided chiefly at Florence, Italy, where she died in 1861. She wrote "Prometheus Bound" (1833), "Aurora Leigh" (1857), and many shorter poems.
Bryant, William Cullen, the author of "The Death of the Flowers" (page18), was one of the most popular of American poets. Born at Cummington, Mass., 1794; died at New York, 1878. Besides his poems, he wrote translations of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey," and was for more than half a century one of the editors of "The Evening Post" (New York).
Buckley, Arabella Burton, is an English author and naturalist. Born at Brighton, England, 1840. She has written several books on scientific subjects for young readers: "The Fairy Land of Science," from which our selection is taken (page29), "Winners in Life's Race," and "Life and her Children."
Campbell, Thomas: A British poet and critic. Born at Glasgow, Scotland, 1777; died, 1844. He wrote "The Pleasures of Hope," "Hohenlinden," "Lochiel's Warning," and many other well-known poems.
"Cloister and the Hearth, The": An historical romance, by Charles Reade, first published in 1861. The scenes are laid mostly in Holland and Italy, and the time is the middle of the fifteenth century. See page153.
Collier, W. F., author of the sketch on "Life in Norman England" (page89), is an English historian. He has written "The History of the British Empire," "A History of England," and several other similar works.
Cowper, William: A celebrated English poet. Born, 1731; died, 1800. His principal work was "The Task," from which our brief selection (page196) has been taken. He wrote also "John Gilpin," "Tirocinium," and several other poems.
"David Copperfield, The Personal History of": A novel, by Charles Dickens, first published in 1849. "Of all my books," says Dickens, "I like this the best." Many scenes in the novelist's own life are depicted in this story. The character from whom the book took its name is a timid boy reduced to desperation by the cruelty of his stepfather, Mr. Murdstone. At ten years of age he is sent to a warehouse in London, where he was employed in rough work at a small salary. He finally runs away, and is protected and adopted by an eccentric maiden lady, Miss Betsey Trotwood. He becomes a writer, and marries a gentle, innocent little lady, whom he calls his "child wife"; she dies, and he afterwards marries a woman ofstronger mind, named Agnes Wickfield. The selection which we give (page121) is a fair example of the style which characterizes the story.
Dickens, Charles: The most popular of English novelists. Born, 1812; died, 1870. Wrote "The Pickwick Papers," "Nicholas Nickleby," "Oliver Twist," "David Copperfield," from which our story of "The Shipwreck" (page121) has been taken, and numerous other works of fiction.
Drake, Joseph Rodman, author of "The American Flag" (page206), was an American poet. Born at New York, 1795; died, 1820. His principal work was "The Culprit Fay," written in 1816.
Everett, Edward: An American statesman and orator. Born at Boston, Mass., 1794; died, 1865. He was editor of the "North American Review," member of Congress, Governor of Massachusetts, President of Harvard College, Secretary of State in the cabinet of Millard Fillmore, and United States Senator from Massachusetts. His orations and speeches fill four volumes.
Froude, James Anthony: A noted English historian. Born, 1818; died, 1894. His chief work was a "History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada." He also wrote four volumes of "Short Studies on Great Subjects," "Cæsar, a Sketch," "Life of Lord Beaconsfield," "Life of Carlyle," etc.
Hemans, Mrs. Felicia: An English poet. Born at Liverpool, 1793; died, 1835. She wrote numerous short poems, which were at one time very popular. She is best remembered in this country as the author of "The Landing of the Pilgrims" (page195), "Casabianca," and similar pieces.
Hogg, James: A Scottish poet, often called from his occupation the Ettrick Shepherd. Born, 1770; died, 1835. Amonghis poems are "The Queen's Wake" (1813), "The Pilgrims of the Sun" (1815), and many short pieces.
Howells, William Dean: An American novelist and poet. Born at Martinsville, Ohio, 1837. He was for ten years editor of the "Atlantic Monthly." He has written numerous novels, several short comedies or farces, and a volume of poetry. Our selection is from one of his latest works, "Stories of Ohio," a series of sketches relating to the settlement and early history of that commonwealth.
Hunt, James Henry Leigh, author of the poem entitled "The Glove and the Lions" (page119), was an English essayist and poet. Born, 1784; died, 1859. His chief poem is "The Story of Rimini"; his principal prose works are "Life of Lord Byron" (1828), and "Autobiography" (1850).
"Idylls of the King": The first part of this noble poem by Lord Tennyson appeared in 1859, and the remaining parts were issued at various intervals until its completion. It comprises twelve books, or poems, which should be read in the following order: "The Coming of Arthur," "Gareth and Lynette," "The Marriage of Geraint," "Geraint and Enid," "Balin and Balan," "Merlin and Vivien," "Lancelot and Elaine," "The Holy Grail," "Pelleas and Etarre," "The Last Tournament," "Guinevere," "The Passing of Arthur." Taken together in this order, these various poems present a complete and connected history of King Arthur and his knights. See page216.
Ingelow(in´je lō),Jean: An English poet and novelist. Born at Boston, Lincolnshire, 1830; died, 1897. Wrote "Off the Skelligs," "Fated to be Free," "A Motto Changed," several children's books, and numerous poems.
Irving, Washington: An eminent American writer. Born, 1783; died, 1859. His principal works are "Columbus and his Companions" (from which the extract beginning on page25is taken), "The Sketch Book," "Tales of a Traveler" (1824), "The Conquest of Granada" (1829), "The Alhambra" (1832), "Oliver Goldsmith" (1849), "Mahomet and His Successors" (1850), "Life of George Washington" (1859).
"Job, The Book of": One of the books of the Old Testament, the authorship of which is unknown, but has been ascribed to various persons and periods of time. It is doubtless one of the oldest literary productions in our possession, and may be described as a poetic drama, having a didactic purpose. The hero of the book is Job, a man of great wealth and prosperity, who has been suddenly overtaken by misfortune. The great literary merit of the work is recognized by all scholars.