QUICK LOAF BREADS.—The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time. The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.
If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat, baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such
grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast breads.
A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,—about 300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven of proper temperature.
3 cupfuls whole wheat flour 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1 egg 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3 1/4 teaspoonfuls.
Peanut Breadmay be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.
1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour 1 cupful pastry flour 3/8 cupful sugar 5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking) 1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk) 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone, and cut in pieces or chop them.
Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
Raisinsordatesmay be used instead of prunes. These fruits may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead of 1 cupful liquid.
Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.
Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.
Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used. Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made, what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?
DRIED EGGS.—Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not injurious. Their food value is high.
It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p. 108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes, and salad dressings.Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg for each egg desired. To this amount of powder,add 3 tablespoonfuls of water. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30 to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.
Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.
THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.—In all the quick bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately. It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a delicate bread is desired.
The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.
It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet, should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a quick bread.
CREAM PUFF BATTER.—The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin tins or gem pans.
The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leaveningPopovers,i.e.by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.
1/2 cupful water 3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil 1 tablespoonful butter 5/8 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt 2 eggs
Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325 degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.
Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad mixture.
1 cupful flour 3/4 cupful sugar 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat. Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the salt. Cool, and add flavoring.
For economy the butter may be omitted.
Chocolate Fillingmay be made by following the recipe for Cream Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.
Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready to bake?
From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.
By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced into the mixture?
Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?
What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?
In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before cooking (see Experiment 24)?
Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather than directly over the flame.
How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?
What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as the flour mixture?
Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure 75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more water? Which contains the more nutriment?
Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.—One hears much concerning working efficiency,i.e.the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.
Since foods furnish the body with energy,the energy which the body spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed. If the body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy, measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in Calories.
Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food requirements ordietary standards. Some of these factors are: (1) weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.
(1)Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy Requirement.—In general the quantity of food required increases with the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short, fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is generally based upon body weight.
(2)Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement.—From the previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise, even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an individual should use.
The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who sits quietly at his employment.
The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]
Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hourMan sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hourMan at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hourMan at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hourMan at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hourMan at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour
From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories 4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per hour) 400 Calories 3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories ——————- 2330 Calories
The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as excavating, is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories 1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories 7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories ——————- 4990 Calories
Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141,Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:
Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per dayWeaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per dayCarpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per dayFarm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per dayExcavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per dayLumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day
The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See "Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:
At rest 1600-1800 Calories per daySedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per dayMilliners TeachersBookkeepers SeamstressesStenographers Machine operativesOccupations involving standing, walking,or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per dayCooks in family groups Chamber maidsGeneral housekeepers WaitressesOccupations developing muscularstrength 2500-3000 Calories per dayLaundresses Cooks for large groups
(3)Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement.—Young children,i.e.those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.] gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen, food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age. Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for all ages above seventeen:
Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per dayChildren of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per dayChildren of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per dayGirls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per dayBoys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per dayGirls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per dayBoys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day
The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater restlessness or muscular activity of the boy.
DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.—If a person's energy requirement were 2500 Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all the combustible foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by each of these foodstuffs?
Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment. Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.
Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.—Although protein may furnish the body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that "flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food. But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines. With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for body-building.
For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in satisfactory proportion.
DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.—Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein. A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.
THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.—The appetite is the most common measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet have normal body functions.
There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home- keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and usefulness of the members of the family.
WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.—It has been found that the diet of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D. Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be malnourished.
39 34 35 3640 36 37 3841 38 39 4042 40 41 42 4343 42 42 43 4444 44 45 45 4645 46 47 47 48 4946 48 48 49 50 5147 49 50 51 52 5348 51 52 53 54 55 5649 53 54 55 56 57 5850 56 57 58 59 60 6151 59 60 61 62 63 6452 62 63 64 65 66 6753 66 67 68 68 69 7054 68 69 70 71 72 7355 72 73 74 75 76 7756 76 77 78 79 80 8157 81 82 83 84 85 8658 85 86 87 88 89 90 9159 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 9860 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 10661 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 11162 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 11563 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 11964 115 117 118 119 120 121 12265 117 119 120 122 123 124 12566 119 121 122 124 126 127 12867 124 126 127 128 129 13068 126 128 130 132 133 13469 129 131 133 135 136 13770 134 136 138 139 14071 138 140 142 143 14472 145 147 148 149
Age Age 5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz 8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz 11 to 14 12 oz.
Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the usual indoor clothes
CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 156 Fifth Avenue, New York
Courtesy ofChild Health Organization. Prepared byDr. Thomas D. Wood.
HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs
39 35 36 37 40 37 38 39 41 39 40 41 42 41 42 43 44 43 43 44 45 46 44 45 46 46 47 45 47 47 48 48 49 46 48 49 50 50 51 47 51 52 52 53 54 48 53 54 55 55 56 57 49 55 56 57 58 58 59 50 58 59 60 60 61 62 51 60 61 62 63 64 65 52 62 63 64 65 67 68 53 66 67 68 69 70 71 54 69 70 71 72 73 74 55 73 74 75 76 77 78 56 77 78 79 80 81 82 57 81 82 83 84 85 86 58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97 60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102 61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110 62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116 63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119 64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122 65 120 122 123 124 125 126 66 125 126 127 128 129 130 67 130 131 132 133 134 135 68 134 135 136 137 138 139 69 138 139 140 141 142 143 70 142 144 145 146 147 71 147 149 150 151 153 72 152 154 155 156 157 73 157 159 160 161 162 74 162 164 165 166 167 75 169 170 171 172 76 174 175 176 177
AGE AGE 5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz 8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz
Courtesy ofChild Health OrganizationPrepared byDr Thomas D Wood
Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining whether the proper amount is being eaten.
Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family.Compute your own energy requirement from this table.
Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight. How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your age?
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.
Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix), regarding service with and without a maid.]
Potato SoupLettuce Salad with French DressingMuffins
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time you prepare them.
(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,— such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds of flours or meals.
MIXING FAT.—What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick breads (see previous lessons onBatters)?
In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly. Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and stirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick bread mixture is thin,i.e.a batter.
When the quick bread is a stiff mixture,i.e.a dough, this method of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has been found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat, provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs by working it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knife or with the fingers. (In which method of mixing—with the knife or with the fingers—can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?) If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into the flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients between the palms of the hands.
SOFT DOUGHS.—Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a spoon. A soft dough contains approximatelythree parts of flour to one part of moisture. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft dough mixture.
2 cupfuls flour 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat Milk or water, about 3/4 cupful
Mix the dry ingredients; then work the fat into the mixture with the tips of the fingers, or cut it in thoroughly with a knife. With a knife mix the liquid with the dry ingredients. The mixture is of proper consistency when it may be dropped from the spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls on an oiled pan, or into oiled muffin tins. Bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15 minutes.
Place sliced fruit—fresh, canned, or dried—in an oiled baking-dish. Cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture, made by using the ingredients in the same proportion as for Drop Biscuits. Two or three times as much fat as the given quantity may be used. Bake until the fruit is tender and the batter is firm and brown, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. Serve with cream or fruit sauce. Plain cream may be used, or the cream may be whipped, or sweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla.
1 cupful whipped cream 1 egg white 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Chill the cream; add the unbeaten egg; then beat with an egg beater (for method of whipping cream see Lesson XLVIII). Add the sugar and vanilla.
Explain why the fat in Drop Biscuit is not added in the same manner as in pour batters.
If the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients, why rub the ingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms of the hands?
Compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard or vegetable fat with those made with butter.
Why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding?
Mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the pudding and tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time of baking.
Why does the quantity of liquid given in Drop Biscuits vary (seePourBatterandGluten)?
Why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it (seeWhipping Cream)?
"Shortening."—The tenderness of a quick bread is an important consideration. It is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread. Oil and water do not mix (see Experiment 35). Hence when much fat is used in a quick bread, particles of dough or batter, which contain both fat and moisture, do not adhere firmly. Quick bread containing much fat becomes tender, that is, it crumbles readily.
In preparing modified biscuit mixtures,—short cakes, fruit dumplings, etc.,—in which the quantity of fat is increased, make very careful comparisons between the "rich" or "short" breads and those containing the standard quantity of fat. In making observations, note the following:
(a) ease or difficulty in removing from the pan without breaking, (b) tenderness or toughness, (c) difference in flavor.
Make a biscuit mixture, containing two or three times the quantity of fat used in biscuit mixture. Place one half of the mixture in an oiled cake pan, then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute. Add the remainder of the mixture and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, and place on a cake cooler for a few minutes. Split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits. Place uncrushed fruits on the top, and serve with plain cream or Whipped Cream or Fruit Sauce; or cover the cake with a meringue, garnish with whole fruit, and serve with a Soft Custard Sauce.
1/4 cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of Short Cake.
What general statement can you make with regard to the effect of increasing the fat in quick breads?
Knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread, when the quantity of fat is increased, state the effect of adding too much fat.
What is the purpose of usingmeltedbutter or substitute in theShort Cake mixture?
Mention some fruits, or fruit combinations, that would be palatable in aShort Cake.
How many persons can be served with a Short Cake made with 2 cupfuls of flour?
USE OF THE ROLLING PIN.—When dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits, it needs to be a little stiffer than for Drop Biscuits. It should, however, be a soft dough. Biscuit dough should not be pressed down with a rolling motion, but should be deftly and gently "patted" out with several successive "touches" with the rolling pin.
In using the rolling pin for stiff doughs, when more pressure should be exerted, the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke.
2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls fat Milk or water, about 2/3 cupful
Mix as in drop biscuits, using less milk, so that the dough is just stiff enough to roll out. Roll gently to 1/2 inch thickness on a slightly floured board, and cut into small biscuits. If any dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits, moisten it with a little milk or water. Place on a slightly oiled pan, and bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15 minutes. Serve hot. They may be placed on a folded napkin or doily.
Make Baking Powder Biscuit dough. Roll until 1/4 inch thick and cut into pieces. Place an apple (cored and pared) in the center of each piece. Fold the dough over the fruit and bake (375 degrees F.) or steam for 1/2 hour, or until the apples are soft. The dumplings may be browned in the oven after steaming.
Rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for Apple Dumplings. Other fruits may be used instead of apples.
Make a biscuit mixture, using 4 tablespoonfuls of fat instead of 2 tablespoonfuls, as given in the recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits. Gently roll to 1/4 inch thickness, and spread the following ingredients over it:
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon Fruit
For the fruit use:
1/2 cupful dried currants, or 1/3 cupful raisins and 2 tablespoonfuls citron, or 2 cupfuls chopped apples
Roll as jelly roll, then cut into pieces 3/4 inch thick and place (cut side down) on buttered tins. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) 15 to 30 minutes. If apples are used, serve the roll with cream and sugar as a dessert. If the dried fruits are used, serve the roll in place of a hot bread or cake.
Compare recipes for "drop" and "cut" biscuits. How do they differ?
Why should biscuits be "patted" out rather than rolled out with the rolling pin?
If dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting, what is the result after baking? How can this be remedied?
How can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking to the dough?
Why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily?
Write a recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits, using 3 cupfuls of flour as the basis.
How many apples of medium size are required for Apple Dumplings, when 2 cupfuls of flour are used?
Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking PowderBiscuits?
How should citron be cut for use in cooking?
If apples are to be used for the fruit of Fruit Rolls, give in order the measuring, the preparation, and the mixing of the materials.
Practical Method of Diet Calculation.—The 100-Calorie portions can be used in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's daily diet. In Lesson CXVI the weights of 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, sugar, etc., were determined, then these portions were weighed and measured. In much the same way, tables have been prepared containing the weight and measure of 100-Calorie portions. If such a table is read and the quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce 100 Calories of heat is kept in mind, the computation of the meal becomes very simple.
If a person knows his energy requirement, he can select such quantities of food for the day as will conform with the ideal standard. The quantity of food to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice. The important point is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard. However, in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal, some find it convenient to divide the day's ration. The following is a convenient division: One third for breakfast, one fourth for luncheon, and five twelfths for dinner.
But the division may vary with individual needs. Ascertaining one's energy requirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals, one can very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as will conform with the ideal standard. If the energy requirement of a girl of fourteen years is 2200 Calories, her breakfast may yield approximately 750 Calories, her luncheon 550 Calories, and her dinner 900 Calories. A luncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg (50), one medium slice of homemade bread (100), orange marmalade (100), butter for bread (100), large banana (100), and a small glass of milk (100) would yield sufficient nourishment according to the requirement above.
If it is desired to compute the Calories produced by the protein of a meal, data can be obtained from the table also (seeCalories Derived from Protein).
The calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is:
Number of Calories derived from protein of egg 18.2Number of Calories derived from protein of bread 13.8Number of Calories derived from protein of marmalade 0.7Number of Calories derived from protein of butter 0.5Number of Calories derived from protein of banana 5.3Number of Calories derived from protein of milk 19.1——Number of Calories derived from protein of entire meal 57.6
If one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desired protein requirement, the above luncheon approaches the ideal.
The Form C given below will be found convenient to use in calculating the fuel value of menus from 100-Calorie portions.
Calculate your own breakfast, luncheon, and dinner energy requirement, and those of at least two members of your family.
From the table of 100-Calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all your meals served either at your home or at school for several days. Compare the result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above. If the results vary greatly, strive to select the proper kind and quantity of foods so that the total Calories and Calories derived from protein approach the ideal.
Meal:Number Served:Food Quantity Number Total Calories Total Cost Totalof 100- Calories Produced Calories of 100- CostCalorie by Protein Produced CaloriePortions in 100- by Protein PortionCaloriePortion
TotalTotalfor OnePerson
Percent of Total Calories produced by calories derived from Protein: Signature: Date:
[Footnote 103: The approximate measure of 100-Calorie portions is based in part upon "Table of 100 Food Units," compiled by Dr. Irving Fisher. The weight in ounces of 100-Calorie portions and Calories derived from protein are based upon data found on p. 410 of "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," by Henry C. Sherman, Ph. D. Items marked "*" are from "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Table III, p. 355.]
EDIBLE PORTIONS APPROXIMATE MEASURE WEIGHT CALORIES OF 100-CALORIE IN OUNCES DERIVED PORTION OF 100- FROM CALORIE PROTEIN PORTION Almonds 15 average 0.5 12.6 Apples 2 medium 5.6 2.5 Apricots, fresh 2 large 6.1 7.7 Asparagus, cooked 2 servings 7.5 17.9 Bacon, smoked (uncooked) 1 thin slice, small 0.6 6.7 Bananas 1 large 3.6 5.3 Beans, baked, canned 1 small serving (1/2 cupful) 2.8 21.5 string, canned 5 servings 17.2 21.5 lima, canned 1 large saucedish 4.6 20.8 Beef, corned 1.2 21.2 dried, salted, and smoked 4 large slices 2.0 67.2 *loaf Slice 4in.x6in.x1/8in. 1.4 40.0 porterhouse steak 1 serving 1.3 32.4 ribs, lean 1 average serving 1.9 42.3 ribs, fat 0.9 15.6 round, free from visible fat 1 generous serving 3.1 80.7 rump, lean 1.7 41.0 rump, fat 0.9 17.5 *stew with vegetables 2/5 cupful 3.0 16.0 sirloin steak 1 average serving 1.4 31.0 Beets, cooked 3 servings 8.9 23.2 *Biscuits, baking powder 2 small 1.3 11.0 *Blanc Mange 1/4 cupful 1.9 8.0 Brazil nuts 3 average size 0.5 10.2 Bread, graham 1 thick slice 1.3 13.5 toasted 2 medium slices (baker's) 1.2 15.2 white homemade 1 medium slice 1.3 13.8 average 1 thick slice 1.3 14.0 whole wheat 1 thick slice 1.4 15.9 Buckwheat flour 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.4 Butter 1 tablespoonful(ordinary pat) 0.5 0.5 Buttermilk 1 1/4 cupfuls (1 1/2 9.9 33.6 glasses) Cabbage 2 servings 11.2 20.3 *Cake, chocolate Piece 2 1/2" x 2 1/2" 0.9 8.0 x 7/8" *Cake, one egg Piece 1 3/4" x 1 3/4" 1.0 8.0 x 1 3/4" Calf's-foot jelly 4.1 19.8 Carrots, fresh 2 medium 7.8 9.7 Cauliflower (as purchased) 11.6 23.6 Celery 19.1 23.8 Celery soup, canned 2 servings 6.6 15.7 Cheese, American pale (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 26.5 American red (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 20.0 Cheddar (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 24.4 Cottage 4 cubic inches (1/2 cupful) 3.2 76.1 Neufchatel 1 1/2 cubic inches 1.1 23.2 (1/4 cupful) (1/2 small package) Roquefort (as purchased) 1.0 25.3 Swiss (as purchased) 1 1/3 cubic inches 0.8 25.4 Chicken, broilers 1 large serving 3.3 79.1 Chocolate "generous half" square 0.6 8.3 *Chocolate (beverage half milk and half water) 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.1 10.0 Cocoa 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 0.7 17.3 *Cocoa (beverage, half milk and half water) 3/4 cupful 5.5 14.0 Cod, salt 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 3.4 97.5 *Cookies 2, 2 1/4 in. diameter 0.9 6.0 Corn, green (as purchased) 1 side dish 3.6 11.4 Corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 10.3 Crackers, graham.. 3 crackers 0.9 9.6 soda 3 crackers 0.9 9.4 water 3 crackers 0.9 10.3 Cranberries(as purchased) 1 cupful (cooked) 7.5 3.4 Cream 1/4 cupful 1.8 5.0 Cucumbers 2 large 20.3 18.4 *Custard, cup 1/3 cupful 3.3 17.0 Dates, dried 4 medium 1.0 2.4 Doughnuts 1/2 doughnut 0.8 6.2 Eggs, uncooked 1 1/2 medium or 2 small 2.4 36.4 Farina 1.0 12.3 Figs, dried 1 large 1.1 5.5 Flour, rye 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.9 wheat, entire 1/4 cupful 1.0 15.5 wheat, graham 1/4 cupful 1.0 14.9 wheat, average high and medium 1/4 cupful 1.0 12.8 Gelatine 4 tablespoonfuls 1.0 98.7 *Gingerbread Piece 1 in. x 2in. x 2 in. 1.2 8.0 Grapes 1 large bunch 3.7 5.4 Haddock 4.9 96.3 Halibut steaks 1 average serving 2.9 61.8 Ham, fresh, lean 1.5 44.0 fresh, medium 1 average serving 1.1 19.0 smoked, lean 1.3 30.1 Herring, whole 2.5 54.6 Hominy, uncooked 1/4 cupful 1.0 9.3 *Ice cream, vanilla 1/4 cupful 2.0 6.0 Lamb, chops, broiled 1 small chop 1.0 24.3 leg, roast 1 average serving 1.8 41.0 Lard, refined 1 tablespoonful (scant) 0.4 (—) Lemons 3 medium 8.0 9.0 Lettuce 50 large leaves 20.4 25.2 Liver, veal, uncooked 2 small servings 2.9 61.6 *Macaroni and cheese 1/3 cupful 2.1 17.0 Macaroni, uncooked. 1/4 cupful(4 sticks) 1.0 15.0 Macaroons 2 0.8 6.2 Mackerel, uncooked 1 large serving 2.5 53.9 salt 1.2 29.5 Marmalade, orange 1 tablespoonful 1.0 0.7 Milk, condensed, sweetened 1 1/16 cupfuls 1.1 10.9 skimmed 1 1/4 cupfuls (scant) 9.6 37.1 whole 5/8 cupful (generous half glass) 5.1 19.1 Molasses, cane 1/8 cupful 1.2 3.4 *Muffins, corn-meal 3/4 muffin 1.2 13.0 *Muffins, wheat 4/5 muffin 1.2 12.0 Muskmelons 1/2 average serving 8.9 6.0 Mutton, leg 1 average serving 1.8 41.2 Oatmeal, uncooked 1/8 cupful 0.9 16.1 Olives, green 7 to 10 1.2 1.5 Onions, fresh 2 medium 7.3 13.2 Oranges 1 very large 6.9 6.2 Oysters, canned 5 oysters 4.9 48.6 Parsnips 1 large 5.4 9.9 Peaches, canned 1 large serving 7.5 6.0 fresh 4 medium 8.5 6.8 Peanuts 10 to 12 (double kernels) 0.6 18.6 Peas, canned 2 servings 6.3 25.9 Peas, dried, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 27.6 green 1 generous serving 3.5 28.0 Pies, apple 1/3 piece 1.3 4.6 custard 1/3 piece 2.0 9.4 lemon 1/3 piece 1.4 5.6 mince 1/4 piece 1.2 8.1 squash 1/3 piece 2.0 9.9 Pineapples, fresh 5 slices 8.2 3.7 canned 1 small serving 2.3 1.0 Pork, chops, medium 1 very small serving 1.1 19.9 fat, salt [Footnote 104: As purchased.] 0.5 1.0 *Potatoes, creamed 2/5 cupful 2.7 9.0 Potatoes, white, uncooked 1 medium 4.2 10.6 Potatoes, sweet, uncooked 1/2 medium 2.9 5.8 Prunes, dried 3 large 1.2 2.8 Raisins 1/8 cupful 1.0 3.0 (packed solid) Rhubarb, uncooked 3 1/2 cupfuls (scant) 15.3 10.4 *Rice Pudding 1/4 cupful 2.2 12.0 Rice, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 9.3 Salmon, whole 1 small serving 1.7 43.1 Sauce, white 1/4 cupful 2.4 8.0 *Salmon, loaf 1/4 cupful 2.1 37.0 Shad, whole 1 average serving 2.2 45.9 Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1.0 11.3 *Soup, corn 1/2 cupful 3.9 12.0 potato 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.2 15.0 cream of tomato 3/8 cupful 3.2 11.0 Spinach, fresh 3 ordinary servings 14.7 35.0 [Footnote 105: as (after cooking) purchased] Succotash, canned 1 average serving 3.6 14.7 Sugar 3 lumps, 5 teaspoonfuls granulated 0.9 (—) 6 1/2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar Tapioca, apple 1/4 cupful 3.6 0.7 Tomatoes, fresh 4 average servings 15.5 15.8 canned 1 3/4 cupfuls 15.6 21.3 Turkey 1 serving 1.2 28.7 Turnips 2 large servings 9.0 13.3 (2 turnips) Veal, cutlet 2.3 53.6 fore quarter 2.3 52.8 hind quarter 2.3 53.0 Walnuts, California 4 whole nuts 0.5 10.3 Wheat, cracked 1.0 12.4 White fish 2.4 61.4 Zwieback 1 thick slice 0.8 9.4
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 106: See Footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials does not exceed 30 cents per person. From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the total Calories and the Calories derived from protein produced by the foods of your menu. How do the total Calories compare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman? Are the Calories derived from protein from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories? If necessary, change your menu so that its total Calories meet the dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its Calories derived from protein are from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories. The pupil should note that the Calorific value of meals is usually correct if the suggestions for menu-making given in Lesson CV are followed.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise Style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid. [Footnote 107: See Footnote 101.]
Rolled Beef SteakStuffed Baked PotatoDrop Biscuits
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 108: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and cook meals.
From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the fuel value of the meals you prepare.
SUGGESTED AIMS: To compare the fuel value of the meals with the energy requirements secured in answering theQuestionsin Lesson CXXXI. To use these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearly approaching the desired energy requirements.
EXPERIMENT 77: CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF THE YEAST PLANT.—(a) Mix 1 tablespoonful of flour, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 3/4 cake compressed yeast, and 5 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Put 1 tablespoonful of the mixture in a test tube and mark the tube "a." Fill the tube nearly full of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for 15 minutes. Examine, noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube. What kind of substance (gas, liquid, or solid) has been formed by the growth of the yeast plants?
(b) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, and fill nearly full of boiling water. Label it "b" and after 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? What has happened to the yeast plants?
(c) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, fill nearly full of cold water, and label it "c." Surround it with cracked ice or, if the weather is cold, place it out of doors. After 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? Why do not the yeast plants grow?
(d) Surround the tube marked "c" with lukewarm water and stand in a warm place. After 15 minutes examine. Are the yeast plants growing? Does freezing kill yeast plants?
(e) Mix 1/8 cake yeast with a little lukewarm water. Stand in a warm place and after 15 minutes examine. Will yeast grow in water alone?
(f) Mix 1/8 cake yeast, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and a little lukewarm water. Set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants may grow. Then examine under the microscope. Are there any budding yeast cells? Make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope.
Draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to the use and care of yeast for bread making
[Illustration: FromFarmers' Bulletin 398FIGURE 86—GROWING YEASTPLANTS]
PROPERTIES OF YEAST.—Yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants (see Figure 86). When placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly, and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide lightens dough. The alcohol passes off as vapor in baking.
Plants need moisture, warmth, light, and the food that is furnished by the air and soil for their growth. Yeast plants require all of these except light. They are not green plants, hence they need no light. Moisture is obtained from the water, milk, or other liquids used in bread dough. Yeast thrives at a temperature of 90 degrees F. It is killed by a temperature above 130 degrees F. Hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water. The other liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature. Also, the dough is placed in a warm place while it is rising, or while the yeast plants are growing. The food required for the rapid growth of the yeast is obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour.
Compressed yeast cakeswhich are wrapped in tinfoil and received fresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use. This yeast must be fresh for successful bread making. It is fresh when it is of a light color, is free from dark streaks, and is crumbly in texture.
Stiff Dough.—Approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture are used for stiff doughs.When sufficient flour has been added to stiff dough, it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl. This is an indication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough. The test applies, however, only when there is no coating of flour over the dough. One should remember that the softest dough will not "stick," if covered generously with flour.
General Suggestions for Bread Making.—Use wheat bread flour, or a combination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat, or graham flour, or with flour or meal made from other grains, in making bread. Flour should be kept in a dry place. It is well to warm flour for bread before using.
If milk is used, scald or boil it to prevent it from souring. Water should be boiled and then cooled (seeWhy Foods Spoil).
With 1 pint of liquid 1/2 to 1 cake of yeast should be used. When it is desired to mix and bake bread in a few hours, a greater quantity of yeast may be used. If the yeast is fresh, most satisfactory results are secured when this is done. The use of much yeast, however, adds to the cost of bread. The less quantity of yeast (1/2 cake) is used when the dough is allowed to rise overnight. Mix 1 yeast cake in 1 cupful of lukewarm water before adding the rest of the liquid.
It is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirable conditions so that the dough will rise quickly. If the rising process occupies much time, certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in the yeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risen dough and convert it into acid. This produces sour dough and consequently bread of sour taste and odor.
Although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice, tasty bread may be secured by one rising. Bread raised only once, however, is usually of uneven grain, because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising are uneven in size or are unevenly distributed. By kneading bread, the larger bubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough. Since considerable gas is pressed out by kneading, it is necessary to allow the dough to rise a second time. It is well to make the dough into small loaves, and place them in small pans, so that the bread will be baked through.
Loaves of bread should bake at least 1 hour at a temperature varying from 375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F. During the first 20 minutes they should rise but slightly and just begin to brown; during the second 20 minutes they should continue to brown; during the last 20 minutes they should shrink from the sides of the pan, while still continuing to brown.
To soften the crust, rub it with a bit of butter or substitute a few minutes before taking from the oven and again after removing from the oven. After baking, place the loaves of bread on a bread cooler, or arrange them in such a way that the air may reach them on all sides. When cool, place in a covered tin box.
BREAD (2 loaves)
2 cupfuls hot waterormilk and water 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 teaspoonfuls sugar 1/2 tablespoonful fat 1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast 1/2 cupful lukewarm water Bread flour (7 to 8 cupfuls)
Boil the water or milk and water. Pour it into a bowl and add the salt, sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fat is melted. Mix the yeast with lukewarm water. When the first mixture is cooled to lukewarm temperature, add the yeast mixture to it. Then add flour enough to make it of the proper consistency (seeStiff Dough), using a knife for mixing. Turn out on a floured board, and knead until soft and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and let rise until doubled in bulk. Then divide it into loaves, or shape into biscuits. Cover and allow the loaves or biscuit to rise in the pan in which they are to be baked until they are doubled in bulk. Bake the biscuits 30 minutes in a hot oven and the bread about 60 minutes in a moderate oven (seeOven Thermometers and Temperatures).
Why should the flour for bread be warmed before using?
What should be the temperature of all materials mixed with yeast? Why?
What should be the difference in the temperature of the oven for loaf bread and for biscuits? Explain.
Why should bread be stored in a covered tin box?
At what temperatures should biscuits and loaf bread bake? Why are these foods baked at different temperatures?
For how long a time should biscuits and bread bake? Explain the difference in the length of time of baking each.