FUEL.—In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn,i.e.a fuel. The fuels commonly used in households are,—wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.
HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.—There are fuel substances everywhere,—paper, cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood. All fuels must be heated before they will burn.
When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn, while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and continue to burn is called thekindling temperatureof that substance.
EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.—(a) Place a short candle on a pan. Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the candle continue to burn? Why?
(b) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn? Why?
EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.—Remove the cover from the top of the chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this experiment.
If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded from it.The act of burning,i.e.combustion, is the union of any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are produced.We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third requisite for combustion.
The necessity for a draft,i.e.a continuous supply of fresh air which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4.
SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.]SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.]
Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at once.
BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3]
Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell. Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter, salt, and pepper.
Name the three requisites for combustion.
Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your answer.
What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of squash is required to serve 6 persons?
COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The principles of building a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the pupils, this lesson may be omitted]—CORN DISHES
EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.—Remove the lids from the coal range. Note the location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of the fire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose? Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Note the place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of the stovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note the location of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the oven damper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven damper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper is open?
An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range(see Figure 10).
Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when the damper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damper is closed?
A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the range(see Figure 11).
How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged when the fire is kindled?
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.—What is found deposited on the inside of the stovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipe joined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney?
[Illustration: FIGURE 10.—COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.]
In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it united with oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solid fuels—coal, wood, paper—burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gas is consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have been burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been burned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the chimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke, are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are calledproducts of combustion.
FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.—It is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. After cleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom of the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so that there are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put two shovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace the stove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove.
[Illustration: FIGURE 11.—COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.]
Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: To the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory metal cleanser.
To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffin oil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or a soft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polish with soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oil must be used with caution.It should never be applied to a stove containing burning fuels.If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, is not destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or stone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood is reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If this burns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft.
GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that are filled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows when pressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering.
To boil green cornremove silk and husk from the corn, place the ears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels when pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter. The platter may be covered with a folded napkin.
To bake green cornselect 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob as follows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the tops of the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in a baking-dish, add:
3/4 cupful milk 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper
Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot.
Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of the range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, using less milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender.
1 can corn 2/3 cupful milk 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place one fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half of the corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of the corn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at 400 degrees F., for 45 minutes.
Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts of a coal range clean before building a fire.
If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should be placed next to the paper? Explain your answer.
What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a range?
Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a covered tin can or stone jar.
Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and in Scalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,—corn or tomatoes? From this explain the difference in mixing.
What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn?
EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.—Inspect a gas burner and find the following parts: (a) Supply pipe. (b) Stopcock. (c) Burner. (d) Mixer (see Figure 12).
To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the order named: (a) Strike the match. (b) Turn the stopcock. (c) Apply the match to the open burner. (d) If necessary, regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofClark Stove CoFIGURE 12.—GAS BURNERSHOWING MIXER]
EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.—Light a gas burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer is stationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. What is the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of the flame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner? What is the purpose of the mixer?
EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.—Inspect a gas range and find the following parts: (a) Top burners—regular, giant and simmering (see Figure 13). (b) Stopcocks of top burners. (c) Oven burners. (d) Stopcocks of oven burners. (e) Pilot (if there is one). (f) Baking oven. (g) Broiling oven. (h) Warming oven and its burner (if there is one). (i) Supply pipe. (j) Stovepipe.
The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and for this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will apply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction that should always be borne in mind.Always open the oven door before lighting the oven burners.If such caution is not observed, the gas may escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot- lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off before lighting the pilot.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13—GAS BURNERS A, giant, B, regular, C, simmering]
ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.—The products of combustion of fuel gas that most interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is not a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containing much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect respiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of a gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range as for a coal range (see Figure 14).
When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensils and does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incomplete combustion. Moreover,carbon monoxide, which is present in some gas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas and when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence it is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is clean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient air can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame.
CONSERVING GAS.—According to authoritative information, [Footnote 8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation of Natural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than the available supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies are constantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in natural gas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of years will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far as we are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever. Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper and householder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions for conserving gas follow:
(1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light blue in color.
(2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that the cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of the flame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have a long flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste of gas.
(3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary. Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. A short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided the cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner.
(4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock so that only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter in rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water.
(5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular or giant burner.
(6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is a wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking utensil.
(7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches are cheaper than fuel gas.
CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.—Daily Care.—If any substance on the stove cannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stove with a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little light paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Remove the tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash.
Weekly Care.—Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with water to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to light the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish the nickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal range. (Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not to apply the oil when the stove is lighted!) Wipe the burner with the oil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or wire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots, use a knife to clean them.
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 3 cupfuls apples 1/2 cupful sugar 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon 1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg 1/2 lemon,—juice and grated rind 1/4 cupful water
Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes.
Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredients to the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as directed for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples are tender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20 minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Care should be taken in gratinglemon rind. Only the thin yellow portion should be used as flavoring.
1 cupful butter 1 cupful powdered sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla
Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill and serve over hot puddings.
In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit the water, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves for the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs browned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples.
Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the oven burners are being lighted.
If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution must be observed in ventilating the kitchen?
What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range?
What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up the sides of a cooking utensil?
What causes pared apples to become discolored?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so that discoloration of the apples will be avoided.
How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped apples?
What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first half of the time for baking?
What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas.
Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple mixture?
What is the effect of too long baking on bananas?
What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not the dish-cloth be used in cleaning it?
KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—In case no kerosene, gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, the portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]—Where gas is not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case a house is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also be desirable for use in summer time.
There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves. The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become saturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, the kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vapor vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofDetroit Vapor Stove CoFIGURE 15.—CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.]
In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure 15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline into it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter is sufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene then vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns.
In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped with asbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturated with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as does a cloth wick.
It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carbon collect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" or soot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicks free from charred material, and to renew the latter when they become short.
Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel. These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wick burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted.
GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]— Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, it requires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasoline cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (In the stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.)
When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline before lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by letting the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning off the supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the time the gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turned on, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns.
Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be kept clean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosion may result. It is for this reason thatthe tank or gasoline container of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are lighted or even hot.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofWestinghouse Electric and ManufacturingCoFIGURE 16.—ELECTRIC RANGE.]
ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]—It was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electric stoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which contain coils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity is the cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate an electric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the current required for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if the current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be cooked in the oven (see Figure 16).
[Illustration: FIGURE 17.—PRESSURE COOKER.]
DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.—Thepressure cooker(see Figure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is maintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from one third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices. Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude cooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level.
Thesteam cooker(see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when several foods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner is required to operate it. The so-calledclover leaf pansor utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or heater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.).
Thefireless cookersdescribed in Lesson XXII are practical fuel and heat savers.
STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers orButterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.]
6 green peppers 1 cupful cooked meat, chopped 1 tablespoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
[Illustration: Courtesy ofToledo Cooker CoFIGURE 18.—STEAMCOOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.]
Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise in halves. Remove the seeds.
Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff the peppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, and pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until the peppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat.
If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the stuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. A mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tasty stuffing for peppers.
If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid to cover the pepper after stuffing.
BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.]
5 apples 2/3 cupful brown sugar 1/2 cupful water 3/4 cupful milk 1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into a saucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add the apples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove the apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing the fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving.
In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup in which the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt, butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce over the apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert.
State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are more popular fuels in summer time than coal.
Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner.
Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the container is exhausted?
Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled while the stove is lighted or hot.
Why are electric stoves not provided with burners?
Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver?
How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel?
Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans.
Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give the reason for this.
What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which peppers are baked?
Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit? From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the cooking.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the course in food study is begun in the fall, when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen—The Preservation of Food—may follow this lesson. The plan of canning fruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods covers but one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teacher may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second year, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupils at these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foods can be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits and sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from food preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.)
EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.—Put 1/2 teaspoonful of salt in a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tube with the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set the tube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water?
When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water and does not separate on standing, the solid substance isdissolved. The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said that salt issolublein cold water, or that water is asolventof salt.
SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.—The change of foods in the body from insoluble to a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important step in the process of digesting.
USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.—A person might live for a number of weeks without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking water. Water has many uses in the body.
(a) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property, water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (SeeSolution and Digestion.)
(b) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body.
(c) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of water, also aids in regulating body temperature.
It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the statement:Water aids in regulating body processes.
FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.—Since water is such a ready solvent, it contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking purposes unless boiled.
EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.—Fill a beaker half full of water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What does water contain which is driven off by heat?
EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.—Continue to heat the water of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is indicated by the larger bubbles?
HEATING WATER.—When bubbling occurs below the surface, water issimmering. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off, water isboiling.
[Illustration: FIGURE 19—SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.]
The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness can be overcome somewhat byaeratingthe water after boiling,i.e.by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air with it.
TEA AND ITS SELECTION.—Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan (see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and sold as tea.
In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.
Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not. Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance calledtannin(sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown by the following:
EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.—(a) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes, then strain the infusion.
(b) Repeat (a) substituting green tea for black.
(c) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage. To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present. Which kind of beverage,—black or green tea,—shows the greater quantity of tannin?
By fermentation, tannin is changed into aless soluble form, so the beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in various countries have different flavors.
Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not reach this country.
MAKING THE BEVERAGE.—Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen, enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never be used. (SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits.) The ingredient in tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.
Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.
TEA (proportion for one cupful)
1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves 1 cupful freshly boiled water
Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea leaves.
Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20) for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.
The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are loosely folded.
Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.
In warm weatherIced Teamay be served. "Left over" tea may be utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments 10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.—TEA-BALLTEAPOT.]
Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons, and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.
Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.
If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface spread with cheese.
By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?
How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?
Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7 and 8.)
Which is the better kind of tea to use—black or green? Explain.
Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?
From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black teas. From what countries do they come?
How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a pound?
Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.
WATER AS A BEVERAGE.—Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.
When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of water. From one to two quarts of water,—either as plain water or in beverages,—should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.
WATER, A FOODSTUFF.—The body is nourished by food and there are many different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which foods are composed are callednutrientsorfoodstuffs[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly calledfood principles.)A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.
[Illustration: Figure 21—Coffee Berries.]
Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body. As explained in the previous lesson, water is abody-regulating foodstuff.
USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.—Water is a cleansing agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling. Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.
COFFEE.—Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans, are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.
Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid is extracted by long boiling.
Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.
BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)
1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee 2 tablespoonfuls cold water Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white 1 cup boiling water (1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls of ground coffee.)
Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.
Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee
CARE OF COFFEEPOT.—The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary. The spout needs special care in cleaning.
2/3 cupful finely ground coffee 5 cupfuls freshly boiled water
(For the following method of preparing coffee, adrip coffeepotis used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is poured through the ground coffee.)
Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot. Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken, however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "Black" orAfter Dinner Coffeemay be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1 cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofManning, Bowman CoFIGURE 22.—COFFEEPERCOLATOR.]
Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure 22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee. The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the percolator. Follow the directions that come with it.
1 egg 1/2 cupful sugar 3/8 cupful fator1/4 cupful vegetable oil 2 tablespoonfuls sour milk 1 cupful rolled oats 1 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 cupful raisins
Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the sour milk and rolled oats.
Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt, baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.
These cookies may be served with coffee.
How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?
When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.
Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after the coffee is boiled?
Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?
In what form,—ground or whole,—should coffee be purchased? Why?
In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.
How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.
What is the average price per pound of coffee?
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—One of the most insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.
Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function in the home than by the educative process called theproject. Stevenson defines a projectas a problematic act carried to completion in itsnatural setting, while Kilpatrick saysa project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.
In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils' mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in the home.
In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which will be performed in a "hearty" manner.
Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a project is an act which involvesmental effort, and that the activity must becarriedtocompletion. The fact that the project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory results.
The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:
Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The ProjectMethod" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X,Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W.Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "TheProject in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]
WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.—Each member of a home has certain obligations to fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy home membership."
APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.—There is no more effective way of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your achievements will bring to the entire household.
Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad to have your cooperation in housekeeping.
Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects." To secure successful results, your home work must be donethoughtfully, andearnestly, and in awhole-heartedway. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:
(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table.
(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served.
In order to accomplish these things, you must work with adeterminationto succeed at what you are doing and to keep your mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future. You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought as you worked.
You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes, it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their cost.
Suggestions for Home Projects:
Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in Lessons I to V once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as possible.
(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency methods strive to lessen the time.
(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the members of your home will find them most palatable.
PLANNING THE TEA.—To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit with your teacher and classmates.
In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to entertain your guests,—what you will have them do to have a pleasant time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of serving them must also be considered.
The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu. Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.
The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (orCream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies CoconutSweetmeats
From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream), sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.
1/4 cupful powdered sugar l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 egg white
Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff.Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.
Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan, place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.
SERVING THE TEA.—For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the presence of the guests.
When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take them from the plates with their fingers.
Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the materials and dishes needed.
ASH.—In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not consist of one material, but of several substances.Ashor mineral matter is a common constituent of food. It is afoodstuff. The term "ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the same kind of ash.
The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The substance that remains after burning,i.e.the "ashes," is mineral matter or ash.
Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment salt—ordinary table salt—(seeCondiments) must not be confused with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances besides common salt.
USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.—Ash as well as water does not burn in the body. It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps to build the body.
Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the regulation of body processes.
Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (a)it aids in building the body; and (b)it aids in regulating body processes. Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.
FRESH VEGETABLES.—It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.
Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.
In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables containcellulose. The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much cellulose.
Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).
Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.—If ash is such a valuable constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss of nutriment.
Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables.Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.
A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:
1. Cooking in water with their skins.
2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after cooking for sauces and soups.
3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained away after cooking.
4. Cooking in steam.
5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.
COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.—Water in which vegetables are cooked should be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water should beboilingwhen the vegetables are added and should be kept boilinggentlyduring the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.
The water in which vegetables are cooked is calledvegetable stock. When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.
Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.
Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (seeCooking Vegetables in Water). Test only the largest beet for sufficient cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter. A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.
Beets may also be served with asauce. Prepare the sauce like WhiteSauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.
Beets may bepickledby slicing them or by cutting into cubes and placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.
2 cupfuls sliced onions 2 cupfuls tomatoes 1 tablespoonful fat Salt and pepper 1 cupful bread crumbs
Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions, however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.
Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400 degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.
Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them (with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11, explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.
State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on beets during cooking.
Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with a fork.
What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?
Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.
What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after parboiling them?