EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.—Examine the beef stock of the previous lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock. Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54).
2 quarts beef stock 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion, sliced 1 carrot 1 turnip 1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves
Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender. Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate, if necessary, and then serve.
The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni, or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in the stock.
Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas, asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making.
EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.—Which contains the more nutriment,—beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (seeProtein in Meat)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what supplies flavor to the meat?
l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat 1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water 1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock Salt and pepper 1 cupful cracker crumbs,or2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful scraped onion Chopped parsley 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking- dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and the crumbs browned. Serve at once.
1 pound round steak 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves Pepper 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 small onion, chopped Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat
[Illustration: FIGURE 57.—RUMP.]
Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper. Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked.
If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin.
2 pounds beef 1/4 cupful flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 onion cut into slices 1 quart hot water 2 carrots, cut in dice 1 turnip, cut in dice 4 potatoes, cut in dice 1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet
Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done. If desired, more flour,—mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,—may be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen bouquet, and serve.
THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.—When meat is dipped in flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however, more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick. Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the sauce is ready to serve.
If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way of making it of one half inch thickness?
For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water?
Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than at boiling temperature.
What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour?
Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables?
Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew?
Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What are the prices per pound of these cuts?
1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick 1/2 to 1 cupful flour Suet or bacon fat 1/2 onion, sliced 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper
With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak. In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot.
If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (i.e.of what material) should be used in cooking the meat? SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits.)
This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The onion may be omitted, if desired.
3 pounds beef Flour Salt pork or suet 1/2 bay leaf 6 peppercorns Salt and pepper 1/4 cupful each,—diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery
[Illustration: FIGURE 58.—CROSS RIB, BOSTON CUT, OR ENGLISH CUT]
Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the sauce containing vegetables.
NOTE—This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding the uses of cooked beef
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of PublicationsTeachers CollegeFIGURE 59—SKIRT STEAK, FLANK STEAK.]
SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT—There are many recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (seeTough Cuts of Beef) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as follows
1Soup-making—Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and then cook below boiling temperature in the water.
2. "Boiling" or Stewing.—Plunge meat into boiling water; boil until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature.
3.Pot-roasting and Braising.—Sear meat by boiling or browning in fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range, it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called braising.
What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising?
Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods?
What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (seeRoasting)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)?
Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price per pound of each.
"LEFT OVERS"—Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine in order to heat it quickly.
As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions should be changed to utilize available materials.
2 cupfuls chopped meat 2 tablespoonfuls fat 3 tablespoonfuls flour l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (SeeCrumbs for Scalloped Dishes.)
Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown.
Cold fishmay be shredded and used in the same way.
COTTAGE PIE.—Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion.
How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive value? How does it differ in taste?
Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash.
Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes?
Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be desirable for hash.
How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of fresh meat?
Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked?
EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonful of cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes. Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to hardness?
EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonful boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine?
NOTE.—Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of the gelatine dessert of the lesson.
GELATINE.—When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled, what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (seeProtein in Meat;Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making;Examination of Cold Beef Stock)?
The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle, skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized gelatine the most convenient to use.
One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly. In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine.
Gelatine should be first hydrated (i.e.combined with water) by means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water.
THE VALUE OF GELATINE.—Gelatine is an incomplete protein,i.e.it is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body.
The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit, however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value. Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid diet.
1 tablespoonful granulated gelatineor1/4 ounce shredded gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 3/4 cupful sugar Salt 1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice
Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a mold. Set in a cool place to harden.Gelatine mixtures should be covered while soaking and cooling.
To remove jelly from the mold, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water to the outside of the mold.
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices. Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or without cream.
Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh pineapple fails to stiffen.
When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in appearance and quantity.
Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows:
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set aside in a cool place.
Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff, pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool.
When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce.
What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling?
Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely?
What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice is added.
What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures?
Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained?
Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why?
How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the jellies? Explain.
When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit?
1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 cupful sugar Salt 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice 2 or 3 egg whites
Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with chilled Custard Sauce.
For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks (instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful). In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested.
The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the mixture into the mold.
Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more tasty.
1 tablespoonful gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple Boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar Salt 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream
Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed.
Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point. Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until the mixture begins to stiffen.
Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve cold.
What is the price per package of gelatine?
How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one package?
Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference in the cost?
Which is lighter in weight,—beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation of Snow Pudding.
Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of Bavarian Cream.
EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.—Soak a piece of fresh fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing fish?
EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.—Boil a small piece of fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish?
From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,—boiling or baking,—would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why?
COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.—Fish is an animal food containing protein. It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning.
FAT OF FISH.—The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat. The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested.
CLASSES OF FISH.—According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may be divided into two classes: _(a) dry, or_ leanfish, and _(b) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch, bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel, herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.)
Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which they live, fish from the sea being termedsalt-water fish, and those from rivers and lakesfresh-water fish
Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish.
1 can salmon 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 or 2 eggs 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk
Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan, surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out, and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for White Sauce, seeWhite Sauce for Vegetables. For the fat of the White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon).
Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale,Tuna fishor other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon.
Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf.
Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon Timbale.
Any kind ofcookedandchopped meatmay be used instead of fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS
What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or at a high temperature.
What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish?
Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of each?
FRESHNESS OF FISH.—Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish:
(a) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone.
(6) The gills are bright.
(c) The eyes are bright and bulging.
The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water.
Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold waterjust before cooking. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances calledptomaines. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may even prove fatal.
Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly covered,—put in a tin pail or glass jar,—and placed in the refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish should be washed in salted water.
Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained, it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning.
[Illustration: FIGURE 60.—FISH KETTLE, SHOWING RACK]
Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the incision as follows:
Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by"lacing"string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side across the fish and put strips of salt
pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every 10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve withTomato SauceorSauce for Fish(see below).
In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin.
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Cayenne 1 teaspoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Mix the ingredients in the order given (seeCrumbs for ScallopedDishes)
3 tablespoons butter or substitute 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Cayenne l 3/4 cupfuls hot water 1/4 cupful vinegaror1 large lemon,—juice 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley
Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (seeWhite Sauce for Vegetables. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley. Serve hot over fish.
Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the sauce.
Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator?
Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)?
What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)?
How is fish tested for sufficient cooking?
How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked?
An oak plank,—one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large platter,—is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish, should be selected.
Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes.
A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (seePotato Puff). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and potatoes on the plank.
Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (seeFried Oysters).
1/2 pound salt fishor2 pounds fresh fish 1 quart potatoes cut in pieces 2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippingsorother fat 1 onion, chopped 2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal 1 pint milk Crackers
If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes (why?), then shred it.
If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into six or eight pieces.
Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few crackers broken into pieces.
State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish.
Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling?
What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg?
Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish (seeComparison of Beef with Fish).
THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear pods containing seeds; the seeds—green or ripened—and the pods of some of the plants are commonly used as foods.
PROTEIN IN SEEDS.—Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein. Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They contain about 37 per cent.
It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and cheese.
Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat, they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of protein food. The protein in legumes is calledlegumin.
COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.—The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes. During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked.
Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans require long cooking,—usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking, they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in afireless cooker. Thepressure cookermay be used effectively in cooking these dried beans.
Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner as navy beans (seeBoston Baked Beans). Serve cooked soy-beans with Tomato Sauce.
Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent. In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is already required for some other purpose. Thefireless cookeris most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods.
2 cupfuls navy beans 2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 ounces salt pork or bacon 1/2 teaspoonful mustard
Soak the beans overnight as directed inCooking Dried Legumes. Add a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours. Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with liquid.
Lentilsmay be baked in the same way as beans.
1/2 cupful salt 1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts 3 cupfuls water 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3 minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts.Cook 8 minutes. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on paper.
Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking?
Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk?
What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while baking?
Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the oven but an hour or two.
How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in water (see Experiment 35)?
What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon?
What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning?
What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound?
How many cupfuls in a pound of each?
2 cupfuls beans 3 quarts water Baking soda 1 piece of celery rootor1/2 teaspoonful celery saltorDried celery leaves l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 slices onion Cayenne 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 2 tablespoonfuls flour
Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates. Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (seeThick Soups).
Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this soup.
1 cupful split peas 2 1/2 quarts water Baking soda 2 slices onion 1 pint milk 1/8 teaspoonful pepper l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor.
1 pint or can of peas 1/2 teaspoonful sugar 1 pint liquid round peas and water Pepper 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 pint milk 2 tablespoonfuls flour
Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas.
Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve with soup.
How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (seeCooking Vegetables in Water)?
What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick?
If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted in making the soup? Why?
How many persons will these recipes for soup serve?
How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using split peas rather than green peas?
1 cupful white beans, cooked 1 cupful roasted peanuts 1/2 cupful bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt Speck pepper 1/2 cupful milk
Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
1 cupful peanut butter 1/2 cupful chopped celery 1 1/2 cupfuls water 3 cupfuls milk 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 grated potato
Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in a double boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender. Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Then add it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning. Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot.
Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery.
Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast andPeanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient.
Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve?
How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate the difference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak.
What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substance could be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing and cooking if the substitution were made.
FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.—One pound of rice costs much less than one pound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another. Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of beefsteak.
Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken into consideration when determining the value of foods.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.—Foods differ in nutritive value per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than three times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value of a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.—Although one cut of meat may sell for more than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is less waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound than shoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all edible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. One pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.—Most foods are higher in price when out of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in February and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. An unseasonable food is invariably expensive.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.—Food labels often contain valuable information. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, and sometimes the composition of food appears on them.
Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the same quantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects the quantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight and composition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared with another.
Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such as meats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have been purchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for which she pays.
LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.—There are many things, then, that the thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It is one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a family to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thrift is both forceful and true:
"It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure no matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper should take as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as the manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his factory." [Footnote 56:United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.]
CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.—In counting the cost of foods, it is necessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package, but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data for the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from the "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are not required. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places.
Apricots (dried) ——- ——-Baking Powder ——- ——-Beans, dried ——- ——-ButterButterSubstituteCheese ——- ——-Cocoa ——- ——-Coffee Heaping ——-Table-spoonfulCorn-meal ——- ——-Corn-starch ——-Cream of Wheat ——- ——-Cream ——-Currants ——- ——-(dried)Eggs (see ——- One ——-Experiment 41Flour, white ——-Flour, whole wheat ——- ——-Flour, graham ——- ——-Gelatine ——-Lard ——-Macaroni ——- ——-Meat, chopped ——- ——-Milk ——- ——-Potatoes ——- One ——- ——-potatoPrunes (dried) ——- ——-Raisins (dried) ——- ——-Rice ——- ——-Rolled Oats ——- ——-Salt ——-Split Peas ——- ——-Sugar, brown ——- ——-Sugar, granulated ——- ——-Sugar, loaf One ——- ——-lumpSugar, powdered ——- ——-Tapioca ——- ——-Tea ——-Vanilla ——- ——- ——-Vegetable Oil ——-Wheatena ——- ——-
Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges orBaked ApplesGoldenrod EggsBaked Mush with Honey or MarmaladeCocoa
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid.
Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data from the previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods such as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or from the grocer's statement.
Cereal with FruitPoached Egg on Toast
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Set the table for the evening meal each day.
Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight.
(2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table.
(3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table.
(4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served.
(5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty.
(6) To determine the cost of meat.
VITAMINES.—In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment, scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a certain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. They were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the foods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffs must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,—that there should be enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet made up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper proportion was termed abalanced ration.
Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alone do not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is being done on the question of adequate diet. It is found thatcertain substancescontained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential in diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs mentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing, become diseased, and eventually die.
These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life are termedVitaminesby some authorities. There are three classes of Vitamines, calledFat-soluble A,Water-soluble B, andWater-soluble C. It is now believed that there is at least one more vitamine.
Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote growth and to keep in health.
Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to prevent rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war, because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed in Europe.
Water-soluble B is called theanti-neuritic vitaminebecause it is necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (seePolished and Unpolished Rice).
Water-soluble C is called theanti-scorbutic vitaminebecause it is necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy.
FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A aremilk,eggs, andleafy vegetables. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops, beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions. Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also contain fat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such as carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat- soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils.
It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especially milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According to McCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds; the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium, sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetables not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential minerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented with milk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are so valuable and essential in diet, these foods have been termedprotective foods. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity of water-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has been previously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally and as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seem to be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realize the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her home. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their use.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.—Water-soluble B is more widely distributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part, however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine include seeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and all other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought that the germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B. Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the other two.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods, but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orange juice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of this vitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water- soluble C.
SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.—It was mentioned inSuggestions for Cooking Fresh Vegetablesthat a saving of ash in vegetables meant a saving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor are to be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash constituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or the vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the vegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained.
1 pound or 1/2 peck spinach 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter
If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomes fresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop them in a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan of water; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the pan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and add the seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add the butter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish and serve at once.
Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a combination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and 1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slices of hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach.
Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash the spinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan or casserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning, cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinach several times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in the saucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve at once.
1 pound spinach 1 cupful thick White Sauce 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces 2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced 2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs
Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Season it with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt.
Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined with milk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2 teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until the cheese is blended with the sauce.
Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbs into 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbs in a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add another layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Serve hot.
DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which the leaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cooked and served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked, it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. In case the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combined with milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.]
Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter or granite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectly dry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoring soups and stews.
In what kind of soil does spinach grow?
What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach?
What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate flavor?
If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using a small, rather than a large quantity of water?
What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does one pound or peck serve?
What is the price of celery per bunch?
What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems?