MUTTON.—Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usually about three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang a few days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easily digested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pink skin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that it cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, and dried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termedsavory fat. It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present in the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed by browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: SeeDepartment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 526.]
Mutton fat is useful for soap-making.
[Illustration: FIGURE 66.—CUTS OF LAMB OR MUTTON]
LAMB.—Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from six weeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from its joints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of mutton are white.
Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It contains more water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed to hang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be well cooked; mutton is sometimes served rare.
CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON (see Figure 66). ================================================================== | Name of Cut | Form Of Cut | Method Of Cooking | ================================================================== | A. Loin. | Chops—Loin chops (see | Broiling. | | | Figure 67). | Roasting. | | | Thick pieces (loin sections | | | | of both hind quarters in | | | | one piece called "Saddle | | | | of Mutton"). | | | | | | | B. Leg. | Slices. | Broiling. | | | Thick pieces. | Roasting. | | | | Stewing. | | | | | | C. Rib. | Chops—rib chops(see Fig- | Broiling. | | | ure 67) (when trimmed | Roasting. | | | called "French" chops. | | | | see Figure 67). | | | | Thick Pieces (rib sections | | | | of both fore quarters in | | | | one piece called "Rack | | | | of Mutton"). | | | | | | | D. Shoulder. | Chops blade shoulder | Broiling. | | | chops (see Figure 67) | Braising. | | | and round shoulder | Roasting. | | | chops (see Figure 67). | Stuffing and | | | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | | | Whole. | | | | | | | E. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | | | | Broth-making. | | | | | | F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | | | | Broth-making. | ==================================================================
4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with the mixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredients for the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (seeBaked Fish) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour. Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, and brown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roasting pan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowingone half hour to the pound.Shoulder of vealmay be prepared and stuffed in the same way.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College. FIGURE 67.—LAMB CHOPS. Upper row: Rib chops,—French. Loin chops. Lower row: Rib chops. Blade shoulder chop. Round bone shoulder chop.]
1 cupful fresh mint 1/2 cupful vinegar 1/4 cupful sugar
Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heat over hot water before serving.
2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or mutton Flour Fat for browning Water or stock 4 carrots 2 cupfuls peas 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/2 bay leaf 3 allspice berries
Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown in a frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boiling water or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add them and the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmering temperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook until tender. Serve hot from the casserole.
One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and peas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition.
THE CASSEROLE.—The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and serving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low temperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to tough cuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may be cooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also, if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is a distinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole may be used in the oven or on top of the range.
If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinner napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving.
Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons for adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb.
Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose of first browning the lamb that is to be roasted?
[Illustration: FIGURE 68.—THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND CURED MEATS.(Revised edition)]
What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb or mutton in the casserole (seeThickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked in Water)?
How many persons will this recipe serve?
Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole.
Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb or mutton.
Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a French chop?
Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange in tabulated form and record the date.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with the composition of beef steak.
Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, and turnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash?
PORK.—Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat is entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle fibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fat is most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digested slowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined to the winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes contains organisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in the cooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. The fat of bacon is readily digested.
[Illustration: FIGURE 69.—CUTS OF PORK.]
CUTS OF PORK (see Figure 69). =================================================================== | NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING | =================================================================== | A. Loin. | Chops—rib and loin | Sauteing. | | | chops (freed from fat| Roasting. | | | called "spare ribs") | | | | —cut into chops or | | | | thick pieces. | | | | | | | B. Ham | Slices. | Sauteing. | | (usually smoked). | Whole. | "Boiling." | | | | Roasting. | | | | | | C. Back (all fat). | Strips. | "Tried out" (its | | | Slices. | fat used for | | | | sauteing, frying, | | | | and flavoring), | | | | Larding. | | | | | | D. Shoulder | Slices. | Sauteing. | | (smoked or fresh). | Whole. | "Boiling." | | | | Roasting. | | | | | | E. Bacon (smoked) | Thin or thick slices. | Sauteing. | | or Salt Pork. | | Broiling. | ===================================================================
Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipe the pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roasting pan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown on one side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Then remove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt, pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven.
[Illustration: FIGURE 70.—THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND DRIED FRUITS.(Revised edition)]
Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste the potatoes and meat occasionally.
Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them with the potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of Apple Sauce, seeFruit Sauces).
1 1/2 pounds fresh pork (shoulder) 3 medium sized turnips 1 tablespoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper
Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water to cover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours.
Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour, add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meat and vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2 tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips. Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot.
Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inch thick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan- broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.
Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hot frying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching of the fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp, turning once.
Bacon fatshould be saved. It can be used in cooking.
4 medium potatoes 1/4 pound sliced bacon Flour Salt, used sparingly Pepper Milk
Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon until brown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish and place a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of the tried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, until all the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milk until it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, or until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.
1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon.
Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer?
Why is pork slow in digesting?
Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve with pork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70).
For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly?
What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it?
What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted inScalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material?
Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon?
How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon and of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve?
To what cut of beef does ham correspond?
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with the composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).
Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated form and record date.
POULTRY.—Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, and goose—domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are not considered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are calledspring chickensor broilers. Birds older than one year are sometimes calledfowls.
[Illustration: FIGURE 71.—REMOVING TENDONS FROM THE LEG OF A FOWL.]
SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.—Chickens and fowls have certain characteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens have soft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and little fat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, and much fat surrounding the intestines.
DIGESTION OF POULTRY.—The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey contains little fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and around the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For this reason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readily digested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark.
[Illustration with caption: FIGURE 72—FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. BREASTVIEW]
DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.—Singe, by holding the bird over a flame of gas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, and cut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the leg one inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons; remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pin feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut the oil bag from the tail.
[Illustration: FIGURE 73—FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING,—BACK VIEW.]
The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. If they have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or at the vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organs carefully,—the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all be removed together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which lies under the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from the liver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must be carefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outer coat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the giblets to be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with the exception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmering temperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing the other giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking.
Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth, stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. If the bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together as directed for Baked Fish.
TRUSSING FOWL.—Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs, then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece of string, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail. Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends of the skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind them around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the strings together at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string across the breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (see Figures 72 and 73).
CUTTING A FOWL.—Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into "drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make an incision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side; separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut through the ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut the breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. There should be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked with the giblets for making gravy.
STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized forChickenCroquettes) orCreole Stew.]
Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at simmering temperature until tender.
Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of the platter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces in order between. Cover with a sauce.
The chicken may be placed on pieces oftoastor served in a border of cookedrice.
3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute 1/4 cupful of flour 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 pint stock 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Prepare the sauce (seeCream Toast), and pour it over the well- beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs are coagulated. Serve at once over chicken.
Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat?
What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes inboilingwater? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finally be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling?
What use can be made of the fat of a fowl?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken?
Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to StewedChicken.
2 1/2 cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl Onion juice 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 tablespoonful parsley
1 pint cream or milk 1/3 cupful fat 1/2 cupful flour 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful celery salt
Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (seeCream Toast). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shape into cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat (seeFried Oysters). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas.
An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with the meat.
What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into croquettes (see Experiment 17)?
How many croquettes does this recipe make?
How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average weight?
What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does it take to cook it?
What is the average weight of a spring chicken?
What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl?
Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, usingU. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28. Also record the percentage of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl, what is the price per pound?
Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, and of dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the dried vegetables (see Figure 76)?
EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.—Pour a small quantity of oyster liquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From your previous experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysters contain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at which oysters should be cooked?
OYSTERS.—An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, which consists of mineral matter, protects the animal.
[Illustration: FIGURE 74—COMPOSITION OF FISH, FISH PRODUCTS AND OYSTERS(Revised edition)]
The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills, and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; by means of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; by means of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster; then the dark spot,—this is the liver; also find the fluted portions that partly surround the liver,—these are the gills.)
Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eaten during the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to be contaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of some oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This does not harm the flavor of the oyster.
Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is less salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animals take in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If the water is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerous bacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewing and boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eating oysters taken from polluted water.
When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size. Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prized for serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicates the place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters in the shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters are found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed.
Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation. They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice was placed in contact with the oysters.
Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such a large quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters are prized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysters somewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It is considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They should be eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonous products.
CLEANING OYSTERS.—Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used, strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer or colander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water after washing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell that may be clinging to it.
1 cupful milk 1 pint oysters 1 tablespoonful butter Salt and pepper
Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean the oysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges curl. Add the hot milk and serve at once.
The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe forThin White Sauce).
Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew.
1 pint oysters 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful oyster juice or milk Cayenne
Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add the seasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, another fourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, and finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes.
If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required for baking.
Count and record the number of oysters in one pint.
From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and milk.
Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How do they compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in one pint of each?
What is the difference in cost of one pint of each?
What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor?
Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)?
Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effect of long cooking upon oysters?
In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer of crumbs?
How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve?
What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread?
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, fresh and smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon, fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How can fish be classified with regard to fat content (seeClasses of Fish)? Which fish contains the most protein?
How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is the cheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)?
MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.—Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and other legumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exception of soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence, their use with eggs or milk is desirable.
[Illustration: FIGURE 75.—The composition of eggs and cheese. (Revised edition.)]
Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If they can be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be ground fine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts contain much fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, contain much of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may be used as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reason in many households they are impractical as everyday foods.
1 cupful cottage cheese 1 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion 1 tablespoonful fat
Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cook the onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity of water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. If necessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dish and bake until brown.
(FromUnited States Food Administration Leaflet.)
6 hard-cooked eggs 2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs 3/4 cupful cheese
Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce. Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in the dish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are browned. Serve hot in place of meat.
1 1/2 cupfuls dried bread crumbs Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls shelled peanuts 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 egg Salt and pepper
[FIGURE 76—THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)]
Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop the peanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mix thoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake about 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
[Illustration: FIGURE 77.—THE COMPOSITION OF BREAD AND OTHER CEREALFOODS. (Revised edition.)]
Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, find the percentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75), walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. How many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? What is the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapest source of protein?
Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese (see Figure 77)?
Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes.
MEAT EXTENDERS.—The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless the flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of meat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various cereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containing such a combination of food materials are termedmeat extenders. Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable.
ONE-DISH MEALS.—When many demands other than those of housekeeping are made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. It is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. A meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish meal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical; it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure.
In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the following groups of food:
(1) Vegetables,
(2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts,
(3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat.
To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is generally added.
The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a meal that satisfies the most exacting.
It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would "eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a fascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or fireless cooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless.
An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show that most of these foods make one-dish meals.
1 pound mutton 1 onion 1/2 cupful pearled barley 2 quarts water, boiling 4 potatoes Celery leaves (fresh or dried) 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least 1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.
(Adapted fromDepartment of Agriculture Leaflet.)
3/4 cupful corn-meal 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 onion 1 tablespoonful fat 1 pound chopped meat 2 cupfuls tomatoes Dash Cayenne pepper,or1 small chopped sweet pepper 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. Bake 30 minutes.
(Adapted fromUnited States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl 1 tablespoonful fat 1/4 cupful chopped onion 1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers 1 cupful boiling water 1/2 cupful rice 1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) 2 cupfuls tomatoes 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a few minutes.
Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot.
With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South.
(Adapted fromUnited States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
Make a list of meat-extending dishes.
Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals.
How many persons will one pound of meat serve?
How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound of meat) serve?
Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations.
REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.—All the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of:
Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body.
Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (seeDaily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement) its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body.
Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body.
Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body.
Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet.
Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage.
A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows:
A.Food for Energy.—Although bothstarchandsugarare carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously.
A certain amount offatis needed for energy-giving. A meal containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting.
B.Food for Body-building and Repairing.—Bothproteinandashare needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen,—one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body.
Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction.
Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used.
While all themineral materialsfound in the body [Footnote 71: The ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are:
Sulphur Chlorine Calcium IronSodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus
] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities (see Figures 78, 79, and 80).
[Illustration: FIGURE 78.—FOODS CONTAINING CALCIUM. a, Dried beans, b, dried figs; c, rutabaga, d, celery; e, milk; f, cauliflower, g, almonds; h, egg yolk; i, cheese]
Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children.
The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk.Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium.
Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus.A free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour.
[Illustration: Foods Containing Phosphorus:aDried peas;b, chocolate;c, dried beans;d, whole wheat;e, peanuts;f, cheese;g, cocoa;h, egg yolk.]
In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children.The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized.
Sulphuris one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity.
As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium butsodiumandchlorine,—two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet containsallthe necessary ash constituents.
[Illustration: FIGURE 80.—FOODS CONTAINING IRON. a. Dried peas; b. dried figs; c. whole wheat; d. lentils; e. spinach; f. dried dates; g. eggs; h. rye; i. lean beef; j. dried beans; k. raisins; l. dried lima beans.]
C.Food for Regulating.—Although ash is needed for body-building, it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is also supplied with regulating materials.
D.Food for Promoting Growth.—A discussion of vitamines,—the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health,—was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet.
E.Food for Bulk.—The use of foods containing cellulose, which adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains furnish both of these materials.
OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.—For successful menu- making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows:
A.Appetizing Foods.—If the appetite needs stimulation, foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal.
B.Foods of Contrasting Flavor.—If beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting foods that will taste well together.
C.Variation of Foods.—The same food should not be used twice in the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal.
D.Moist and Dry Foods.—A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy.
E.Sweet Foods.—A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods.
A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal.
Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal.
F.Milk and Beverages.—Since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the family.
When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, should be taken into consideration.
G.Foods on Hand.—When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals.
A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding.
It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods.
MENU PLANS.—Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses.
Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal.
As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these when planning meals.
The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals.
A breakfast may consist of:
FruitCereal or Eggs and ToastBeverage
or
Fruit or Cereal (or both)Meat, Egg, or VegetableBread and ButterBeverage
A luncheon or supper may consist of:
Cream SoupBread and ButterSalad or fruitBeverage
or
Fruit or Cream Soup{Fish or Meat Substitutes{Vegetables{Bread and ButterSaladDessertBeverage
A dinner may consist of:
{Meat{Vegetables{Bread and ButterSalad or DessertBeverage
or
Clear SoupFish{Meat{Vegetables{Bread With or Without ButterSaladDessertBeverage
Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. Give reasons for making the combinations.
Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance.
Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained in it?
Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.
Seasonable Vegetable SaladSalad DressingSalad Rolls
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute,—at least one a week.
Plan and prepare meals containing meat,—at least one a week.
Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare them.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes.
(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute.
When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.
To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments.]—Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following questions:
What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was made porous.
EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS—Repeat Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the mixture?
Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being moistened and heated.
EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.—Measure 1/4 cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?
[NOTE.—Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]
In preparing all quick bread mixtures,pastry flour(seeWheat Flour) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but should be stirred.
OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.—The ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door.
[Illustration: Courtesy of theNational Stove CoFIGURE 81—OVENHEAT REGULATOR]
A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant,i.e.at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens,i.e.ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."
A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of 250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., 450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.
Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: FromTechnical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize OvenTemperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, TeachersCollege, Columbia University.]
1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.
2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.
3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes.
4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."
Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (a) note the number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown; (b) note the number of "counts" (one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.
POUR BATTER.—All breads may be divided into two classes: (a) Quick Breads and (b) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter. Apour batteris the thinnest quick bread mixture. It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.
1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk 1 cupful flour 1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)
Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans.
Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.
What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the Popovers?
What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly?
What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How manyPopovers will the given recipe make?