Finger-and-toe carrotFig. 11(Fig. 8 repeated).Finger-and-toe Carrot. Half natural size.
Fig. 11(Fig. 8 repeated).Finger-and-toe Carrot. Half natural size.
Roots so affected soon rot, and have a fœtid odour, so that they are not only useless themselves, but communicate canker and decay to the whole store. In the putrid mass will be found maggots and flies and beetles of different kinds; but as yet naturalists are not agreed as to whether the nodules of disease are caused by insects, or whether these creatures are merely attracted by the fœtid matter. We are, however, inclined to the belief that some insects are connected with the diseased appearance in the first place, whilst others afterwards step in to fatten upon the decaying matter, induced by the first lot; but still it must be confessed that the subject requires much more attention than it has yet received, in order to settle these important questions.
Still it may be observed that one point has been universally admitted; namely, that anbury only occurs to any extent in sandy soils, where there is an absence of lime, a good dressing of which mineral is the best safeguard against this affection. Still, in soils that are liable to anbury, we should not recommend the continuance of turnip-growing, or at least not so frequently in the rotation as has hitherto been the case, and more especially as the soils which produce anbury to the greatest extent are just those best adapted for parsnips and carrots, which, if not wholly, may occasionally be very profitably grown in the place of the turnip.
Anbury-affected swedeFig. 12.Swede affected with Anbury. Nat. size.
Fig. 12.Swede affected with Anbury. Nat. size.
Having given a few notes on the more prominent forms of insect attacks to which root crops are liable,we would now close this chapter, as details of all the insect pests would occupy more space than we can here allot to the subject; but to those who would inquire further upon this fertile theme, we would advise the perusal of “Farm Insects,” by J. Curtis, Esq., F.L.S., &c.
To render our subject as complete as possible, we direct attention to the following practical conclusions, to which our whole argument upon the science of root-growing points:—
First.—Cultivated roots are improved wild ones, only to be obtained by gardening on the small, or farming on the large scale; this gardening or farming being carried on by certain operations at certain seasons which we have comprehended under the term of cultivation processes.Second.—The difference in sort of roots is caused either by cross-breeding as the result of accident or design, or of the education of some particular propensity which has been acted upon by the intelligent seed-grower.Third.—The maintenance of sorts in purity depends upon careful selection of the right variety for the seeding examples.Fourth.—The preservation of a good outline or shape of root can only be maintained by selecting thoseof goodformto seed from; for, as running to seed, multiform top, forkiness, “finger-and-toe” in roots, is evidence of wild growth, so, then, cultivated plants assuming this form are considered as degenerate, and seed from such roots produces a malformed and poor crop.Fifth.—The difficulties of getting good seed—whether of trueness to sort, from carefully selected bulbs, or free from adulteration either of old with new seed, or a mixture of charlock and others of the same family—are very great. Where, however, good seed can be depended upon, it is much cheaper, though at a considerable increase of first seeds cost, as not only quality but the quantity of live so considerably depends upon the truth and honesty of the seedsman.Sixth.—Injuries from insect attacks, though serious as affecting the yield, are yet not due to the seed; and anbury, if it be due to insects, only occurs in the turnip-crops, and then in particular soils. The true insect attacks to be averted by simultaneous action.In fine.—Good seed, of a true sort,—care in growth,—and a watchfulness of enemies, includes theScienceandPracticeof Root Cultivation.
First.—Cultivated roots are improved wild ones, only to be obtained by gardening on the small, or farming on the large scale; this gardening or farming being carried on by certain operations at certain seasons which we have comprehended under the term of cultivation processes.
Second.—The difference in sort of roots is caused either by cross-breeding as the result of accident or design, or of the education of some particular propensity which has been acted upon by the intelligent seed-grower.
Third.—The maintenance of sorts in purity depends upon careful selection of the right variety for the seeding examples.
Fourth.—The preservation of a good outline or shape of root can only be maintained by selecting thoseof goodformto seed from; for, as running to seed, multiform top, forkiness, “finger-and-toe” in roots, is evidence of wild growth, so, then, cultivated plants assuming this form are considered as degenerate, and seed from such roots produces a malformed and poor crop.
Fifth.—The difficulties of getting good seed—whether of trueness to sort, from carefully selected bulbs, or free from adulteration either of old with new seed, or a mixture of charlock and others of the same family—are very great. Where, however, good seed can be depended upon, it is much cheaper, though at a considerable increase of first seeds cost, as not only quality but the quantity of live so considerably depends upon the truth and honesty of the seedsman.
Sixth.—Injuries from insect attacks, though serious as affecting the yield, are yet not due to the seed; and anbury, if it be due to insects, only occurs in the turnip-crops, and then in particular soils. The true insect attacks to be averted by simultaneous action.
In fine.—Good seed, of a true sort,—care in growth,—and a watchfulness of enemies, includes theScienceandPracticeof Root Cultivation.
Deane's AdvertisementFARM AND GARDEN SEEDSCARRIAGE FREE.Bangholm Swede,East Lothian Swede,Ward’s Beauty Swede,Dropmore Swede,Marshall’s Champion Swede,Green-top Swede,White Swede,Improved Skirving’s Swede,White and Red Globe, andNorfolk Turnip,Scotch Yellow Turnip,Dobito’s Yellow Oval Mangel,Ward’s Ditto,Improved Yellow Globe Ditto,Improved Orange Globe Ditto,Improved Long Red Mangel,Royal stampImproved Long Yellow Mangel,Improved Red Globe Mangel,Improved White Field Beet,Red Clover, Cowgrass,White, Yellow, and AlsikeClovers.Pacey’s Perennial Rye-grass,and other sorts.Italian Rye-grass, Foreignand English Seed.Natural Grass Seeds, inmixture or separate, suitablefor various soils and localities.Light Rye-grass and otherCheap Grasses, for sowing onRailway Banks and WastePlaces.Orders for Exportation promptly attended to.PETER LAWSON, & SON, THE QUEEN’S SEEDSMEN,28, KING STREET, CHEAPSIDE,near the Guildhall, and15, LAWRENCE LANE, LONDON, E.C.ESTABLISHED 1821.SPECIAL MANURES.GRIFFIN, MORRIS, AND GRIFFIN,Invite Attention to their Manures which are successfully used inFORTY-SEVEN BRITISH COUNTIES.MANURES FOR ALL KINDS OF ROOT CROPS.Surprising results are produced by the use of their well-knownGRASS MANURES,TURNIP, POTATOE, AND MANGOLD MANURES.Agriculturists are invited to send for an Annual Circular, containing List of Prices, Particulars of Premiums, &c.CERES WORKS, WOLVERHAMPTON,January, 1863.THE LONDON MANURE COMPANY,ESTABLISHED 1840,Supply Peruvian Guano, Nitrate of Soda, Dissolved Bones, Superphosphate of Lime,AND ALL ARTIFICIAL MANURES GUARANTEED GENUINE.116, Fenchurch Street.EDWARD PURSER, Secretary.MILLER & JOHNSONManufacture Special Manures for Root, Corn, and Grass Crops,Which they guarantee to be of the highest quality.WORKS: NORMANDY WHARF, ROTHERHITHE;OFFICES: 25, MARK LANE, LONDON.EDITIONS FOR 1863.NOW READY,THE SHILLING PEERAGE.THE SHILLING BARONETAGE.THE SHILLING KNIGHTAGE.THE SHILLING HOUSE OF COMMONS.Containing the Birth, Accession, and Marriage of each personage, his Heir (Apparent or Presumptive), Family Name, Political Bias, and Patronage; as also a Brief Notice of the Offices which he has hitherto held, his Town Address and Country Residences.Compiled by EDWARD WALFORD, M.A., Balliol College, Oxford.LONDON: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.FARMERS OF ENGLAND,Read theMAGNET,The largest and best Agricultural and Family Gazette, and the best London newspaper especially devoted to Agriculture and the Interest of the Land.The MAGNET is published every Monday evening, after the close of the London Corn and Cattle Markets, and in time for post.Important to Auctioneers and other Advertisers from its large and influential circulation. Price 41⁄2d. only. Stamped for circulation by post.OFFICE, 19, EXETER STREET, STRAND, LONDON.In Monthly Parts, at 5s. each.ENGLISH BOTANY.EDITED BYJ. T. B. SYME, F.L.S., &c.The first Volume of this splendid Work is now ready.IT CONTAINS ALL THERues, Anemones, Crowfoots, Spearworts,Waterlilies, Poppies,Fumitories, Mustards, Rockets, Stocks,Lady’s Smocks, Cresses,AND OTHER PLANTS RANKED UNDER THE ORDERS RANUNCULACEÆ,BERBERACEÆ, NYMPHIACEÆ, PAPAVERACEÆ, AND CRUCIFERÆ.ALL THE DRAWINGS ARE LIFE-SIZE, AND COLOURED TO NATUREBY HAND PAINTING.Vol. I. contains seven numbers at 5s. each,OR COMPLETE, BOUND IN CLOTH, 38s.“Mr. Syme’s English Botany will be the most complete Flora of Great Britain ever brought out. This great work will find a place wherever botanical science is cultivated and the study of our native plants with all their fascinating associations held dear.”—Athenæum.LONDON: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.Royal 8vo., price £1. 14s.THE GRASSES OF GREAT BRITAIN (Completion of). Now ready, in 1 vol., containing life-size, full-coloured Drawings, with magnified Organs, of 144 British Grasses, and Observations on their Natural History and Uses. Described by C. JOHNSON. Illustrated by J. E. SOWERBY.Complete, bound in cloth, price £1. 7s.THE USEFUL PLANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN: a Treatise upon the principal Native Vegetables capable of Application as Food or Medicine, or in the Arts and Manufactures. By C. P. JOHNSON. Illustrated by J. E. SOWERBY. 300 Coloured Illustrations.Fcap. 8vo., price 6s.THE BRITISH FUNGI (a Plain and Easy Account of). With especial reference to the Esculent and other Economic Species. By M. C. COOKE. With Coloured Plates of 40 Species.Also, by the same Author,A MANUAL OF BOTANIC TERMS. 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Illustrated by the Best Artists.THEPopular Science Review,A QUARTERLY MISCELLANYOf Entertaining and Instructive Articles on Scientific Subjects.EDITED BY HENRY LAWSON, M.D.,Professor of Physiology in Queen’s College, Birmingham, and one of the Lecturers on Natural Science under the “Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education.”The Popular Science Reviewis, as its name implies, a Review conveying scientific knowledge in such a simple and popular form, that all who read may understand. There is at the present day a numerous and increasing class of intelligent readers who, without being scientific, are nevertheless greatly interested in scientific progress. They would willingly become acquainted with scientific truths, but are too often deterred from the pursuit of such studies by the abstruse or technical language in which these truths are conveyed. In order to meet the requirements of this portion of the community, every available means has been adopted to procure the most accurate information on all subjects of which the journal treats. No pains or expense has been spared to secure the most skilful artists to illustrate its pages.Each number contains systematic, instructive articles (illustrated when needful) on subjects connected with some of the following sciences, viz.:—Astronomy,Geography,Mineralogy,Botany,Geology,Physics,Chemistry,Metallurgy,Zoology,Ethnology,Microscopy,&c. &c., andScienceapplied to the Arts, Manufactures, Commerce, and Agriculture.LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.Andrews, W., M.R.I.A. (Vice-President of the Zoological Society of Ireland).Ansted, Professor, F.R.S., F.G.S.Bond, Prof.F., M.B., F.C.S. (Hartley Institute, Southampton).Breen, James, F.R.A.S.Buckland, F., F.Z.S.Buckman, Prof.James, F.L.S., F.G.S.Collingwood, C., M.A., M.B., F.L.S.Cooke, M.C.Coultas, Harland.Crookes, William, F.R.S.De Quartrefages, Professor.Fairbairn, W., LL.D., F.R.S.Fraser, W., M.D., F.L.S.Gore, George.Gosse, Philip H.,F.R.S.Hogg, Jabez, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., &c.Houghton, Rev.W., F.L.S.Hunt, Robert, F.R.S.Jesse, E., F.L.S.Jones, Prof.Rymer, F.R.S.King, Prof.W.(Queen’s College, Galway).Lankester, E., M.D., F.R.S., &c.Lankester, Mrs.Lewes, George H.Plues, MissM.Phipson, J., M.B.,Ph.D., F.C.S.Seemann, B.,Ph.D., F.L.S., &c.Tuson, Prof., F.C.S. (Royal Vet. Col.).Voelcker, Prof., F.C.S. (Agricultural Coll., Cirencester).And other writers who take a prominent part in Scientific Literature.“One of the pleasantest and freshest of the Quarterlies.”—Examiner.“This is a wonderful half-crown’s worth; its text, as well as its excellent and accurate illustrations, show it to be one of our cheapest and best periodicals. In this its second, as in its first number, it is fully up to the very highest standard fixed by its conductors. We wish it every success, and we heartily commend it to such of our readers as take an interest in the various phases of popular science.”—Standard.“M. C. Cooke writes ably on Microscopic Fungi parasitic on living plants. Aided by exquisite plates, he unfolds a curious page of botanical history, and the study of which is of great importance. These Microscopic Fungi are the dread of the farmer and the gardener. When the origin and growth of these parasites are better understood, a cure for their destructiveness may be found.”—Bradford Observer.The “Popular Science Review” appears in October, January, April, and July, price Half-a-Crown.Price to Subscribers, 10s. per Annum, Carriage Free.LONDON: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, W.SCIENCE AND PRACTICEINFARM CULTIVATION.BYJAMES BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.No. 2.HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.LONDON:ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.1863.Fully Illustrated, price 7s. 6d. complete in Cloth.Separate Parts, 1s. each.SCIENCE AND PRACTICEINFARM CULTIVATION.BYProf.BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.The complete Series consists of1. HOW TO GROW GOOD ROOTS.2. HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.3. HOW TO GROW GOOD CLOVER.4. HOW TO GROW GOOD CORN.5. HOW TO GROW GOOD HEDGES.6. HOW TO GROW GOOD TIMBER.7. HOW TO GROW GOOD ORCHARDS.LONDON:ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.
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IT CONTAINS ALL THE
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Complete, bound in cloth, price £1. 7s.
THE USEFUL PLANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN: a Treatise upon the principal Native Vegetables capable of Application as Food or Medicine, or in the Arts and Manufactures. By C. P. JOHNSON. Illustrated by J. E. SOWERBY. 300 Coloured Illustrations.
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Small edition, 113⁄4in. by81⁄2in.; large edition, 171⁄2in. by11in.
THE FERN COLLECTOR’S ALBUM: a Descriptive Folio for the Reception of Natural Specimens; containing on the right-hand page a description of each fern, the opposite page being left blank for the collector to affix the dried specimen; forming, when filled, an elegant and complete collection of this interesting family of plants. Handsomely bound, price One Guinea.
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Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers.
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Contains 39 Articles, amongst which will be found—
Fraudulent Trade Marks.—A Day with the Coroner.—Undersea Railroad.—Vivisection. —Restoration of our Soil.—Railways the Great Civilizers.—Physical Education.—The Clerk of the Weather.—Village Hospitals.—Air Traction.—Illuminations.—Boat Building by Machinery.—Doctors’ Stuff.—Small Pox in London.—Excursion Trains.—Early Warnings, &c.
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Containing 45 entertaining and instructive Articles, among which will be found—
London Smoke.—Mock Auctions.—The Suction Post.—Our Peck of Dirt.—The Artificial Man.—Britannia’s Smelling Bottle.—The Post-office.—Commercial Grief.— Aërated Bread.—Needlemaking.—Preserved Meats.—Wenham Lake Ice.—Turkish Baths. —Who is Mr. Reuter?—Candlemaking.—London Stout.—Sewing Machines.—Physical Antipathies.—Ocean Horticulture.—Brain Difficulties.—Human Hair, &c.
Sixth Edition, crown 8vo., cloth, price 6s.
Curiosities of Civilization.
By Dr. ANDREW WYNTER.
Reprinted from the Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews.
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The London Commissariat.—Food and its Adulterations.—Advertisements.—The Zoological Gardens.—Rats.—Woolwich Arsenal.—Shipwrecks.—Lodging, Food, and Dress of Soldiers.—The Electric Telegraph.—Fires and Fire Insurance.—The Police and the Thieves.—Mortality in Trades and Professions.—Lunatic Asylums.
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Price 2s. 6d. Illustrated by the Best Artists.
THE
Popular Science Review,
A QUARTERLY MISCELLANY
Of Entertaining and Instructive Articles on Scientific Subjects.
EDITED BY HENRY LAWSON, M.D.,Professor of Physiology in Queen’s College, Birmingham, and one of the Lecturers on Natural Science under the “Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education.”
The Popular Science Reviewis, as its name implies, a Review conveying scientific knowledge in such a simple and popular form, that all who read may understand. There is at the present day a numerous and increasing class of intelligent readers who, without being scientific, are nevertheless greatly interested in scientific progress. They would willingly become acquainted with scientific truths, but are too often deterred from the pursuit of such studies by the abstruse or technical language in which these truths are conveyed. In order to meet the requirements of this portion of the community, every available means has been adopted to procure the most accurate information on all subjects of which the journal treats. No pains or expense has been spared to secure the most skilful artists to illustrate its pages.
Each number contains systematic, instructive articles (illustrated when needful) on subjects connected with some of the following sciences, viz.:—
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
“One of the pleasantest and freshest of the Quarterlies.”—Examiner.
“This is a wonderful half-crown’s worth; its text, as well as its excellent and accurate illustrations, show it to be one of our cheapest and best periodicals. In this its second, as in its first number, it is fully up to the very highest standard fixed by its conductors. We wish it every success, and we heartily commend it to such of our readers as take an interest in the various phases of popular science.”—Standard.
“M. C. Cooke writes ably on Microscopic Fungi parasitic on living plants. Aided by exquisite plates, he unfolds a curious page of botanical history, and the study of which is of great importance. These Microscopic Fungi are the dread of the farmer and the gardener. When the origin and growth of these parasites are better understood, a cure for their destructiveness may be found.”—Bradford Observer.
The “Popular Science Review” appears in October, January, April, and July, price Half-a-Crown.Price to Subscribers, 10s. per Annum, Carriage Free.
LONDON: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, W.
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
IN
FARM CULTIVATION.
BY
JAMES BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.
No. 2.
HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.
LONDON:ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.1863.
Fully Illustrated, price 7s. 6d. complete in Cloth.Separate Parts, 1s. each.
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
IN
FARM CULTIVATION.
BY
Prof.BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.
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LONDON:ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.
The terms “meadow” and “pasture” are usually employed together, as though they were really distinct things; yet few people think of them as different,—the fact being, that when a field is occupied with grass, it may be called ameadow, in contradistinction to that land under the plough, orarable: this yields meadow-hay if mowed for that purpose, orpasturagewhen fed off or depastured by our flocks or herds.
The meadow, then, as being fixed, is termed “permanent pasture.” Pasture-herbage, however, is grown in the shifting crops of arable cultivation; in which case it gets the term of “artificial pasture.” Hay from the first of these is called “meadow-hay,” whilst the mixture of grasses, clovers, &c., gets the name of “artificial grass,” or “hay,” as the case may be.
As regards permanent pasture, this may beoldornew,—some meadows having been in green herbage even for centuries, whilst others, though sufficiently old, yet show traces of having been once arable in the more or less high-backed ridges left by ancient ploughing. Viewed in this way, original pasture isnot so extensive as may be supposed; indeed, there is scarcely such a thing at all, as all pastures are the result of something like cultivation,—as, left to themselves, that is, to Nature, they would soon resume the aspect of jungle, moor, or marsh, according to soil and situation.
Meadows and pastures may, then, for our present purpose, be conveniently tabulated as follows:—
a. Permanent Pastures.1.Moors and uplands, unenclosed or but partially fenced in.2.Commons, unenclosed land, usually about villages, conferring the right of cattle and goose grazing.3.River flatsand lowlands, liable to floods.4.Irrigated Meadow, in which the water is controllable.5.Meadows, or permanent grass enclosures.b. Artificial Pastures.6.Seeds, shifting crops of some grasses, clovers, saintfoin, &c., used either mixed or separately.
a. Permanent Pastures.
1.Moors and uplands, unenclosed or but partially fenced in.2.Commons, unenclosed land, usually about villages, conferring the right of cattle and goose grazing.3.River flatsand lowlands, liable to floods.4.Irrigated Meadow, in which the water is controllable.5.Meadows, or permanent grass enclosures.
b. Artificial Pastures.
6.Seeds, shifting crops of some grasses, clovers, saintfoin, &c., used either mixed or separately.
1. Moors, uplands, and downs (such as Dartmoor and Salisbury Plain) are more or less wild according to their elevation and the geological formation on which they occur. They consist of large tracts of land either without fences at all, or only those of the most inefficient kind, rather boundary-lines than otherwise. They are never used for haymaking, nor are they cultivated beyond depasturing. These are dotted with patches of rough grass, thorns, briers,and shrubs or stunted trees where the surface is much broken, and the animals they are made to carry are few; but on the more rounded and smooth lines of the downs is a finer herbage, kept so not only from the nature of the case, but from the fact that such a position favours the more thickly stocking it with that close-grazing animal the sheep.
These pasturages, though very extensive, are yet being encroached upon by a higher cultivation, and the hayfields one occasionally meets with around the squatter’s cabin even in the wild mountainous parts of Wales sufficiently testify to the greater productiveness of which the most unfavourable districts are capable.
2. The village common is sometimes extensive; it, too, as the former, is only grazed. Many of them have of late years been enclosed. Where much depastured—and they usually carry as much stock as they can bear—there is a remarkable absence of plants other than grasses. Indeed, grass-herbage, and usually of the best species, will prevail, unless in places where there may be stagnant water, in which cases a little drainage would produce a large public benefit; but as what is everybody’s business is done by no one, the common is too often left much wilder, and thus made poorer than it need be.
3. The river flats here meant are, for the most part, large fields partaking of the nature of common; that is, certain farmers and others have the privilege of grazing during the autumn; but it isaimed upearly in spring, for the purpose of taking a crop of hay. Such lands would be impoverished by such constant haymaking; but the winter floods leave behind them a deposit of silt and fluviatile materials,and perhaps beside act as a solvent; so that their fertility is wonderfully maintained.
Many such wide stretches of meadow occur on the banks of the Severn, as in the neighbourhood of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Worcester, &c., where they get the name ofHam. It is much to be regretted that these hams are not made the most of, for the same reason as applies with respect to common, for the want of some efficient officer to direct improvements; and so from the water here and there stagnating good herbage is ruined, and from the floods not being controllable, even hay is lost with the summer freshets. But where such land is vested in single enterprising proprietors, not only is drainage insured, but embankments are made to keep out the waters when not required, as so much met with on the banks of the Thames; and such fields are at once an evidence of the capabilities of river flats, and the great importance of individual enterprise.
4. The last case approaches very nearly to that ofirrigatedmeadows; but these latter are mostly situate on small streams, which can be directed to flow through, not over them, at any time: they offer a most important means of augmenting our pasturage in certain districts, and will therefore receive a chapter to themselves.
5. Permanent grass enclosures are of very varied sizes, from hundreds of acres, forming perhaps a park, to the small meadow of the homestead; they may be seldom or never used for haymaking, but most of them are aimed up for hay once, twice, or thrice in four or five years. These form the greater part of the grass-lands of our country, and are indeed nowhere greener or more productive than in theBritish Isles; still, as we are an advocate for their cultivation—which, if it does not quite realize the position of making two blades of grass grow where one grew before, may at least do much in this direction—we shall reserve further remarks upon this subject until we have particularly analyzed the contents of a meadow.
6. As shifting crops, grasses, and other fodder plants may be made exceedingly useful, these may therefore well occupy a chapter to themselves.
Although we possess more than a hundred species of native grasses, we shall rarely find a fourth of them even in a wide range of meadows; and if we do so, it is rather an argument against than in favour of the quality of their herbage, as, so few are the best grasses in number, that it is almost a law for the best meadows to contain the fewest species of true grasses.
If, then, the good grasses be so few, whatever is not of these must be inferior, and, indeed, so bad are some grasses that they can only be considered as weeds. These weed-like forms are known to the farmer from his observing that the cattle usually refuse to eat them, and hence he has got to call them “sour grasses,”—a term which, though perhaps meant to convey the idea that such are objectionable in flavour, yet it is oftener that they are refused from their want of flavour, or from some mechanical objection arising from their roughness of growth, some having sharp serrated cutting edges to their leaves, whilst the spicular awns, so conspicuous in the beard of barley, cause great irritation by sticking beneath the tongue and in the gums. Of these, the first are objectionable for pasture, the last for hay, and should, therefore, not be found in really good meadows.
The figures and descriptions which follow are given in illustration of some of the more usual meadowspecies, which, though not fully or botanically described, will yet aid the practical farmer in estimating the species, and their value and significance, which he will commonly find in his fields.
Meadow FoxtailFig. 13.The Meadow Foxtail.
Fig. 13.The Meadow Foxtail.
The Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis,fig. 13) is an early species of thespicateform—i.e., the flowers grow close together, into a more or less dense head. It yields a great quantity of herbage, especially in moist situations; and is particularly adapted for the irrigated meadow. It should be distinguished from theA. geniculatus(Kneeling Foxtail), whose spike is only about half the length and size, as this is particularly a water species, so that if found when a meadow is dry, it is yet an evidence that water must have lain where it occurs for a considerable period of the year. Also from theA. agrestis(Slender Foxtail), which has a longer and thinner spike, as this latter is a weed in poor hungry clays, which is useless except as serving to indicate that the land wants perhaps both drainage and manure. Here, then, our first genus presents us with species indicating the varied conditions of rich meadow, wet places, and poor arable; and it is this variableness in adaptabilitythat makes the grasses such important indicators of the nature and condition of soils.
Catstail grassFig. 14.The Catstail Grass.
Fig. 14.The Catstail Grass.
The Catstail Grass (Phleum pratense,fig. 14) in general form is not unlike the preceding, but it is much rougher in all its parts, and is one of the latest instead of one of our earliest species. Its name of catstail is due to its rough flowers, an enlarged drawing of one of which is given ata. It has also got the name of Timothy Grass, from one Mr. Timothy Hanson, an American, to whom, probably, is owing its first introduction as a “self-crop,” large fields of this useful species, mostly by itself, being grown in Canada and the States as a fodder plant. It is very useful in the meadow, as supplying a late crop of stems and leaves; greatly augmenting the amount of herbage in some of the colder though not poor districts.
We have never seen this grass used as a self-crop in England, but we are convinced that on some of the rich alluvial flats, as in the lands reclaimed from the Severn, and warp soils in general, it would yield a large bulk of good feeding matter, which, though somewhat rough, would yet mix well with clovers, &c., in chaff-cutting.
Sweet Vernal GrassFig. 15.The Sweet Vernal Grass.
Fig. 15.The Sweet Vernal Grass.
The Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum,fig. 15) is a very early species, with a somewhat lax spike of flowers, which usually become of a bright straw-colour by the time the hayfield is ripe for the scythe. It does not yield much bulk, but its grateful bitter when fresh, and the peculiarly sweet hayfield odour which it yields on drying, would seem to make this grass of importance, from the flavour which it imparts to the produce of the field; indeed so much so, that much of the value of natural meadow hay over that of artificial pasture may be traced to the presence of this grass.
Crested DogstailFig. 16.The Crested Dogstail.
Fig. 16.The Crested Dogstail.
The Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus,fig. 16)has its florets arranged in front of a series of abortive branches, as represented ata, enlarged. It has a very slender stem, which is hard and wiry when ripe—a condition which it so universally attains, even in spite of constant depasturing, that we never recommend its use in mixtures for permanent pasture, as its stems are particularly innutritious, and its herbage is so small as to be of little value. It never prevails much in our best pastures.
Rye grassFig. 17.Rye Grass, or Ray Grass.
Fig. 17.Rye Grass, or Ray Grass.
Rye Grass, or Ray Grass (Lolium perenne,fig. 17), has no connection with the Cereal Rye. It is one of our commonest and most useful species, both as a plant for the natural meadow or for arable culture, especially in mixture with clovers, which has the name of “seeds.” It yields good bulk for the rick, and will so readily grow after cutting or close depasturing that it commonly affords the greater part of the herbage of a pasture. From being so valuable, its seed has been much cultivated; and as it has a tendency to form more or less permanent varieties, so we find in the market several different sorts; as “Pacey’s, Ruck’s, Russell’s, Stickney’s, Rye Grass,” &c. It should always form part in any mixture in laying down permanent pasture, in which case it should be distinguishedfrom theLolium Italicum, the florets and seeds of which are awned-pointed, as ata. This latter is useful as an annual self-crop, but seedsmen too often mix it in permanent-pasture collections, for the reason that it grows faster, and so makes a show the first year, and so satisfies the customer; but it soon dies out, while its large growth has kept under the more enduring forms.brepresents a bunch of the tumid flowers of theLolium temulentum(Drunken Darnel), once a pest in cornfields, but now, fortunately, of rare occurrence, if we are to believe the tales told of its so-called poisonous seeds.
CocksfootFig. 18.The Cocksfoot.
Fig. 18.The Cocksfoot.
The Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata,fig. 18), though a large and somewhat coarse grass, is by no means inferior in quality, its hay being highly nutritious, whilst its cut or cropped herbage is so quick of growth that it is capable of yielding a great deal of keep. It sends its root deep into the soil, so that it can grow well in poor land if dry; but it never flourishes in very wet situations. It is constant in good meadows, unless when they are always depastured, as there the constant treading greatly interferes with it: it is, therefore, by nomeans so abundant in sheep pastures; whence has arisen the idea with some farmers that “too much sheep-grazing wears out the richer grasses.”
We should always recommend cocksfoot as a part of mixtures for permanent pasture, taking care to well roll the meadow once or twice a year—a process of great importance—to keep the turf in an even pile, and so prevent that growing of large clusters or hassocks of one sort, a method of growth to which the cocksfoot is somewhat prone.
Rough-stalked meadow grassFig. 19.The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass.
Fig. 19.The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass.
The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis,fig. 19) is a common species in moist meadows, where it often forms a considerable portion of the herbage: it is distinguished from the smooth-stalked by the long-pointed tongue (ligule) to the leaves (a), and a stem which is somewhat rough to the feel, especially when drawn downwards through the fingers. This grass yields a quantity of herbage, but our experience leads us to conclude that it does not possess quite so good a quality as Sinclair and authors who have copied from him would lead us to suppose, as wehave found it wanting in feeding qualities, or what the farmer calls “proof.” It usually forms a large part of the hay of the irrigated meadow, which, though often large in quantity, is yet not equal to that of ordinary good meadows in feeding properties.
The Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass (Poa pratensis), distinguished by a blunt ligule (b) and smooth stem, is as abundant in dry situations as the former is in damp ones. We confess to a great partiality for this grass, notwithstanding that authors speak slightingly of its value; but the truth is, that it varies with soil and situation, it being a species which, when growing on a wild moor, is poor in both quantity and quality. But we know of no better sign of the improvement of a bad meadow than the increase of this grass, and its putting on, as it will do under such circumstances, of its richest green tint.
Poa nemoralis(Wood Meadow Grass) is a more slender form, whose wildhabitatis in woods and shady places, especially on calcareous soils. This points it out as a useful grass for wood-glades and positions beneath trees, in which it may very properly be employed.
In laying down permanent pastures we should, then, employ these three poas as follows:—
Poa trivialis, for low, damp situations and irrigated meadows.Poa pratensis, for sound dry pastures and uplands.Poa nemoralis, for rides between woods, wood-glades, and shady places.
Poa trivialis, for low, damp situations and irrigated meadows.Poa pratensis, for sound dry pastures and uplands.Poa nemoralis, for rides between woods, wood-glades, and shady places.
Meadow fescueFig. 20.Meadow Fescue.
Fig. 20.Meadow Fescue.
Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis,fig. 20) may be taken as the type of the broad-leaved fescues. It is a common and good succulent grass in rich meadows, and should always be employed in seed mixtures forsuch situations, A variety, botanically known asF. loliacea, is unbranched, like the lolium or rye grass. The position of this is on rich river flats: we have seen it on the banks of the Isis at Oxford, forming a large part of most excellent herbage.
Tall fescueFig. 21.The Tall Fescue.
Fig. 21.The Tall Fescue.
The Tall Fescue (Festuca elatior,fig. 21) is a larger and coarser form ofF. pratensis, as seed of the latter will become the former by being sown on some stiff sandy clays. It occurs abundantly on the stiff alluvial deposits of our estuaries and river flats. It is an exceedingly coarse grass, with a tendency to grow in large separate bunches; and hence its presenceis destructive to good pastures: it may, however, be encouraged as a rough growth in its indicatedhabitats.
Sheep's fescueFig. 22.Sheep’s Fescue.
Fig. 22.Sheep’s Fescue.
Sheep’s Fescue (Festuca ovina,fig. 22) may be taken as the type of the small-leaved fescues. It is a native of our downs, and forms a large proportion of the sweet down sheep-pastures. It is known by its fine leaves, which come up immediately after the closest feeding; and if its quantity equalled its quality, it would be even more valuable than it is. A larger form, the Hard Fescue (F. duriuscula), is common to sound meadows and the hill valleys. This has much the same properties as the former, but it is taller, with longer and broader leaves. This should always be encouraged, and in laying down grass for permanent pasture, it should be plentifully added to the seed mixture.
Downy wild oatFig. 23.The Downy Wild Oat.
Fig. 23.The Downy Wild Oat.
The Downy Wild Oat (Avena pubescens,fig. 23) is a common grass on thin calcareous soils. As it is very light in structure, and yields but little grass, it is not worth much as a first-rate pasture plant,—and indeed it would scarcely prefer to grow on them.
There is, however, a smaller-flowered species, theAvena flavescens(Yellow Oat-grass), which is better. It, too, occurs on chalky soils; while theAvena pratensis(Meadow Oat-grass) is found too frequently in poor clays or on starved moors, in which its rigid leaves and harsh structure render it little, if any, better than a weed.
One of the most interesting species of the genus is theAvena fatua(Wild Oat), well known as a weed in stiff arable soils. This is the parent of the crop oats in cultivation, and there is reason to know that by degeneracy the crop oat in some districts leaves behind a pest of wild oats.[2]