The Architectural Era.

A CALIFORNIA HOUSE FOR $2,500.

The elevation, as shown, is a model of neatness and economy. At once attractive in appearance and substantial in all its surroundings, it does away with all those horrible idiosyncrasies and bugbears of the Elizabethan and Queen Anne styles. There are no small windows to cause the one who cleans them to utter a whole vocabulary of cuss words at the architect who made so many corners to dig out. There is no part of California but what needs all the sunshine that was intended to enter a room, and the large windows shown allow the heat and light to make glad the hearts of the dwellers therein. Even with the thermometer at 100 degrees and over in the shade at noontime, still, when evening comes, the cool winds that invariably bless the sleep of those who are tired from their daily toil has easy ingress from these same large windows. And in winter, from the absence of snow in all of our beautiful valleys, the same windows are a source of joy and comfort for the occupants to observe the driving rains, or admit the blessed sunshine as it pierces through the wintry clouds.

Great care should be exercised in painting the exterior. The colors selected should be a happy blending of light and dark shades. They should be graded from rich, heavy grades at the bottom to the lighter tones at the gable peaks, preserving, through the intermediate section, a consistent harmony. The roof may be of dark slate color. The trimmings may be colored with a combination of blue, black, and Indian red. The body of the house may be varied to suit the above. It must be distinctly borne in mind that all buildings of the same class cannot be treated alike. Trees have a wonderful effect on colors used, and the main study of the painter and owner should be that the salient points of form and detail be enhanced by the proper selection of the various colors. By all means, if you are building a home for yourself, take the good wife into your confidence, and let her judgment be given on the various colors to be used.

PLAN OF $2,500 CALIFORNIA HOUSE.

SECTION OF DOOR JAMBS AND INSIDE FINISH.

A CALIFORNIA HOUSE FOR $2,500.

ROOF PLAN.

SECTION & ELEVATION OF SIDE PORCH AND RAILING.

The arrangement of the rooms, as shown by the plan, is very desirable for any one with a small family. A feature is made of the entrance way. From the hall, one can pass either to the parlor or dining room, the latter being the general sitting room. The parlor is large—13 × 17 feet in size. It has a fireplace, as shown. A cornice is also designated. Sliding doors connect this room with the dining room, the size of the latterbeing 12 × 17¾ feet. A cornice and fireplace are also shown. In case of company or family gathering, the two rooms will be practically one. The porch shown in front will be very handy for the gentlemen who smoke, or, on warm days the ladies can use the same for sewing purposes, sheltered, as the plans show, by the roof overhead.

You pass from this room into a hall, from which you can enter all the rest of the rooms. The main chamber is 12 feet 6 inches by 16 feet 6 inches, besides a large bay window, having four windows for light and air. There is also a cornice in this room, and a place for a stove to connect with parlor chimney. There is a very large closet, and also wash room, which is well lighted and ventilated. Passing along the hall, we next come to a large linen closet. This will be found very serviceable for the storage of the linen in daily use. Then comes a large chamber, 11 feet 6 inches by 12 feet. No cornice is shown. Should a fire be needed in this room, a patent flue could be placed therein, starting from near the ceiling. A large closet is also connected with this room. At the end of the hall is the bath room, 6 feet 3 inches by 9 feet 6 inches. A wash bowl and water closet are shown. The window, being directly over the tub, assures perfect ventilation.

On opposite side of hall from bath room is a room designated as breakfast room, in size 10 × 11 feet, with two windows. This can be used as a bed room, should the dining room suffice for the needs of the occupants of the house. This room is very convenient, as it can be reached by three different ways. The next room is the kitchen, in size 10 × 13 feet, with plenty of light and ample means of ventilation. The place for the stove pipe is indicated by the dotted lines leading to the dining room chimney. Should it be found more desirable to have the stove in a different position from that indicated, a patent flue can be put in, starting near the ceiling. A large pass closet, amply fitted with drawers and shelves, connects with the dining room. There is also a large pantry fitted up with bins, etc.

A stairway is shown, near breakfast room, leading to the attic. No plan is given of the latter, as the space can be divided according to the individual tastes of the parties building. The rear hall is 3 feet 6 inches wide.

The whole plan is very compact, and will bear careful study. The detail drawings, as shown, will give an adequate idea of the various finishes. Each one is distinctly marked.

We append a general set of specifications to aid those who may see fit to adopt the design. Should any one want a complete set, we can forward them a printed copy.

Excavations.—All rock, dirt, etc., to be cleared away from site of the building. Trenches for walls and piers to be extended down to firm and solid ground. The bank to be dug well away from the walls, and the same to be left open until the walls are well set and dry.

Drains.—To be of ironstone pipe, with cemented joints. The fall to be not less than one‐fourth inch to one foot. No drains to be less than sixteen inches from surface of ground.

Brick Work.—Hard, well burned brick to be used throughout. All brick walls to be made level and straight to the proper and exact height, and to a true line from one end to the other, even to the splitting of a brick where necessary. Piers 12 × 12 inches. Turn trimmer arches for the support of all hearths at the time chimneys are built. All sills to be set in mortar after walls are proper height.

Size of Timbers, etc.—Main sills, 6 × 8 inches; plates, 2 × 4; studs, 2 × 4; underpinning, 4 × 6; joists, 2 × 10; ceiling joists, 2 × 4; rafters, 2 × 4; bridging, 2 × 3 and 2 × 4. Studs and joists spaced 16 inches from center; rafters, 2 feet 8 inches from center; underpinning 2 feet 8 inches from center. All timber below main sills to be of redwood.

Roof to be sheathed with 1 × 6 Oregon pine, well nailed to every rafter. Gutters arranged so as to carry off water wherever directed.

Rustic.—All laps and butt joints to be painted before being nailed in position. Butt joints to have a 3 × 11 inch piece of tin to keep out water.

Outside Stepsto be built upon strong stringers, inch risers of redwood, and two inch treads of Oregon pine, with nosing and scotia. The recess to front hall will be floored six inches below main floor, with three inch Oregon pine, put together with white lead.

Floors.—Oregon pine, tongued and grooved, 4 inches wide, to be used throughout the house. One tongue nail and one through nail to be driven in each piece at each nailing.

Groundsto be of ¾ in. Oregon pine at all openings.

No inside finish to be put on until the last coat of plastering is on.

Face casings to be 6 inches wide and 1¼ inches thick, with suitable plinths.

Sash beads to be fastened on with raised head screws.

All interior work to be hand‐smoothed and sand‐papered.

All carved or planted‐on work to be primed before putting up.

Bases in all rooms to be 10 inches wide, with 2 inch moulding.

Wainscoting.—Rear hall, kitchen, and breakfast room to be wainscoted 3 feet high, and capped with nosing and scotia. Bath room, 6 feet high all around.

Pantry and Pass Closetto be fitted up with shelves and hooks complete, and bins and drawers as shown.

Lathing.—Good sound lath to be used, laid on not less than ⅜ of an inch apart. Joints broken over 8 laths. No lath to be put on vertically, to finish out to corners or angles; neither must there be any lath run through angles and behind studding from one room to another. All angles to be formed and nailed solid by carpenter before laths are put on.

Plastering.—All walls, partitions, and ceilings to be plastered one coat of well haired mortar, made of best lime and clean, sharp sand, free from loam and salt, using best cattle hair. To be made at least eight days before using.

Browncoat to be covered with a good coat of best white hard finish. All plastering to extend to the floor. Center pieces where designated on plans.

Painting.—All interior wood work to have three coats of best white lead, in such tints as may be approved by the owner. Kitchen floor to be oiled two coats.

Gas Pipesto be introduced so as to give the number of lights shown on plan.

Plumbing.—Water pipes to be of galvanized iron ¾ inch diameter. No ½ inch pipe to be used. A 40 gallon galvanized iron boiler, with necessary connections, to be placed in the kitchen. Sink to be of size shown by drawing, to have 2 inch iron water pipe and a Garland trap; 3½ inch brass strainer; back of sink to be lined with zinc. Slop hoppers to be placed as shown. Wash basins to be located as per plan, and to have all necessary hot and cold water connections. Water from all basins to discharge into an open slop hopper outside. Bath tub to be lined with No. 12 zinc, to have a 1¼ inch waste, with Garland trap. All necessary fixtures for bath tub to be placed in proper position. The water closet to be Budde’s patent. Place safe trays under all sinks, bath tub, wash basins, water closets, etc., with 2 inch turned‐up edges, well nailed to wood work. Three‐fourths inch wastes. All waste or soil pipes to be connected with the sewer, and extend the same above basins, sinks, bath tub, water closets, etc., out through the roof.

Generally.—Drawings and specifications are intended to correspond, and to be illustrative the one of the other. All drawings to be furnished by the architect. Details to be given from time to time as the work progresses. Should the necessity arise that any change or changes be made from the original design, the owner shall have the right so to do without invalidating the contract, adding to or deducting from the contract price the agreed sum of any change made.

The above specifications are given as a general index of the work. No accurate estimate can be given from them of the cost of the house. Quality and price of hardware, etc., have been omitted, leaving same to the pocket books of intending builders. As shown, with finishes indicated by the details given, the house can be erected at a cost of about $2,500. Of course this figure can be changed considerably. Using the best of materials, etc., the price should be given at $3,000, at which sum a truly cozy home can be obtained by those seeking a permanent dwelling place.—California Architect.

This is the title of a new monthly published at Syracuse, N. Y. It is finely printed, handsomely illustrated, and full of interesting reading matter. It forms a valuable addition to the architectural literature of the day. The elegant style in which it is produced does honor to its enterprising publishers, Messrs. D. Mason & Co. Three dollars a year, twenty‐five cents per number.

Mix a sufficient quantity of ultramarine with barytes (sulphate of barium, blanc fix) and water to produce the desired tint. It may be rendered more permanent by adding some liquid glue (solution of glue in acetic acid) or some starch paste, prepared with the addition of a little wax.—Chem. and Drug.

The internal decoration of the structure represented in the accompanying engravings is due to Mr. Arnaud, an architect at Carcassonne. The front already existed in part, and merely the finishing of it is due to him. As for the parlor and dining room, of which we give an illustration, these two rooms, like the rest, were studied with very artistic care by Mr. Arnaud, and the execution of the work was closely watched.

CHATEAU OF CASTELNAUDARY—FRONT VIEW—M. AUBRY, ARCHITECT.

The chimney that decorates the dining room is of Echaillon stone, and was made at the works of Mr. G. Biron. It is 14 feet in height, and cost, all carved, $1,400. The flooring of the rooms is of oak, of two colors, and was put down by the house of Idrac, of Toulouse, which makes a specialty of old oak inlaid floors. The color of the old oak, introduced into the very substance of the wood, lasts an indefinite length of time. The wainscoting of the dining room and that of the parlor is of walnut, and forms a frame, in the case of the dining room, for old tapestry. In the parlor the panels are covered with large‐figured cretonne.

INTERIOR OF CASTELNAUDARY CHATEAU.

The ceilings are of plaster, with mouldings. To that of the dining room are affixed, by invisible hooks, some old Japanese plates. These produce a very happy effect in the ceiling as a whole, and in nowise injure it. The ceilings are painted in softening tints, the principal of which are red, blue and maroon. The dining room cost, as a whole, $3,600, the old tapestry included. It is 24 × 30 feet, and the parlor is 28 × 37 feet.—La Construction Moderne.

A test has recently been made of the relative value of wire and cut nails, with results quite at variance with generally received opinions. This test, given below, is published in a circular issued to the nail trade by the Wheeling nail manufacturers, and was made by a committee appointed by the Wheeling manufacturers, who give the following result:

Number of nails in pound.Pounds required to pull nails out.Cut.Wire.Cut.Wire.20d23351,59370310d60869083158d901265972276d1602063832004d280316286123

This test showed the relative value of a pound of each kind to be as follows:

1 lb. of 20d. cut nails equals 1·40 lb. of wire nails.1 lb. of 10d. cut nails equals 2·01 lb. of wire nails.1 lb. of 8d. cut nails equals 1·87 lb. of wire nails.1 lb. of 6d. cut nails equals 1·49 lb. of wire nails.1 lb. of 4d. cut nails equals 2·06 lb. of wire nails.

In obtaining the above results, two tests were made of the 8d. cut nail and four of the 8d. wire nail; three tests each were made of the 6d. and 4d. cut nails and 6d. and 4d. wire nails, and the average is shown.

The committee report as a result of their experiments that $1 worth of cut nails will give the same service as $1.78 in wire nails, if at the same price per pound.—Building.

A correspondent of theRevue Horticolestates that he has been completely successful in saving both his vines and haricot beans from being totally destroyed by the rabbits which swarm in this district by using a remedy which he terms the “Bouillie bordelaise.” This consists of a mixture of sulphate of copper (bluestone or blue vitriol) and fresh slaked lime, in the proportion of 3¼ lb. of the former to 4½ lb. of quicklime in twenty‐one gallons of water. The bluestone is first dissolved in a bucket of water, the quicklime is then slaked, and when cool it is thrown along with the dissolved bluestone into a barrel or other vessel of sufficient size; water is then added to make up twenty‐one gallons, and the whole is well stirred up. The mixture is conveniently applied with a whitewash brush, and in fine, dry weather only should it be used. The object of the lime in the mixture is to counteract any ill effects that the sulphate of copper or bluestone might have on the vegetable tissues, and also to indicate that no part of the stem or plant which it is intended to protect has been passed over without receiving its proper share of the application.

Under this head theAmerican Architectadvises a correspondent as follows:

1. The ice house floor should be above the level of the ground, or, at least, should be sufficiently above some neighboring area to give an outfall for a drain, put in in such a way as to keep the floor clear of standing water.

2. The walls should be hollow. A four inch lining wall, tied to the outer wall with hoop iron, and with a three inch air space, would answer, but it would be better, if the air space is thoroughly drained, to fill it with mineral wool, or some similar substance, to prevent the movement of the air entangled in the fibers, and thus check the transference by convection of heat from the outside to the lining wall.

3. A roof of thick plank will keep out heat far better than one of thin boards with an air space under it.

4. Shingles will be much better for roofing than slate.

5. It is best to ventilate the upper portion of the building. If no ventilation is provided, the confined air under the roof becomes intensely heated in summer, and outlets should be provided at the highest part, with inlets at convenient points, to keep the temperature of the air over the ice at least down to that of the exterior atmosphere.

Inreply to inquiries from various correspondents we would say that Messrs. Munn & Co., 361 Broadway, proprietors of this periodical, have an extensive architectural bureau connected with their establishments, and here, with the assistance of an able corps of architects, they prepare, in the best and most prompt manner, designs, plans, specifications, and details for all kinds of buildings, churches, schools, stores, dwellings, etc. Hundreds of buildings in all parts of the country have been erected from their plans. Messrs. Munn & Co. will be pleased to furnish any information desired by readers relative to any buildings illustrated in these pages.

The Rhode Island State board of health has completed its investigation of the epidemic of typhoid fever at Conanicut park hotel, made last summer.

At the opening of the season of 1887 trouble was experienced, but no action was taken. Soon the people in the house began to be ill, and at a time when all the rooms were taken and many more guests were to come and occupy the cottage apartments. From the first symptoms, which were not considered serious, the disease, which proved to be typhoid fever, assumed a violent form, and Dr. Jernigan, on whose advice several patients had come to the island, directed a practical plumber to make a thorough examination of the premises.

The plumber discovered that the pipes leading from the water closets had leaked into the cellar, and that from all appearances the leak had existed from the first of the season. The sewage had run into the well from which the water was drawn for general uses about the hotel. Prior to the discovery of the contamination of the water, its sparkling qualities had been praised by all the guests. The plumber also reported that the ground near the well was saturated with the sewage, and that when disturbed the earth emitted an overpowering and sickening stench. From the cellar the investigation was continued to the well at the north end of the house. It was dug quite recently, and the shaft had been sunk through an old drain leading to a cesspool, and a portion of the drain constituted a section of the well shaft.

The State board of health proposes to ask for an appropriation this winter sufficient to pay for a careful examination of all the hotels in the State, and the inspection and analysis of all waters used for drinking purposes where there is liability of contamination.—Sanitary News.

Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication of theScientific American, continue to examine improvements, and to act as Solicitors of Patents for Inventors.

In this line of business they have hadforty years’ experience, and have nowunequaled facilitiesfor the preparation of Patent Drawings, Specifications, and the prosecution of Applications for Patents in the United States, Canada, and Foreign Countries.Messrs. Munn & Co.also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Copyrights for Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and Reports on Infringement of Patents. All business intrusted to them is done with special care and promptness, on very reasonable terms.

A pamphlet sent free of charge, on application, containing full information about Patents and how to procure them; directions concerning Labels, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, Reissues, Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on the Sale of Patents, etc.

We also send,free of charge, a synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws, showing the cost and method of securing patents in all the principal countries of the world.

MUNN & CO., Solicitors of Patents,361 Broadway, New York.BRANCH OFFICE.—622 F Street, Washington, D. C.

Iron construction has so completely superseded masonry for bridge building that it would appear almost unnecessary to discuss the question of the equilibrated arch for any large span. But the mathematical principles of the arch have always been an interesting subject with geometricians and theorists, and the theory, at any rate, ought to form one of the subjects of the architect’s and engineer’s education. As a problem of the equilibrium of forces, the theory of arch construction is instructive, inasmuch as it presents us with a concrete example of three forces balanced in a structure. The other day, at the opening of the engineering section of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society, at University College, Bristol, the president, Mr. Charles Richardson, C.E., read a paper on arch building, in which he advocated the employment of arches of equilibrium for bridges. The author referred to the well known and elegant property of the balanced arch, which is derived from the principle of the catenary or suspended chain or inverted polygon of bars, each bar or link assuming the position (inverted) that the arch stones of an equilibrated arch would have. In Dr. Hutton’s valuable “Tracts on Bridges,” this principle is followed in his elucidation of the arch, and readers of that work will remember the diagrams given of various kinds of balanced arches, and the curves of extrados necessary to insure equilibrium. The theory, indeed, is older than Hutton. Belidor and Dr. Hooke both investigated the form of the extrados from the nature of the curve, and this theory has been made the foundation of a very interesting system of designing arches. According to this theory of the question, the stones are considered free from all friction—a condition which does not hold in practice. Mr. Richardson follows, as far as we can see, this theory. He enunciated the theorem that the weight on any point of the arch is proportional to the vertical line from the road line to the intrados at that point; that the horizontal thrust is the same throughout the arch, and is equal to the weight on the crown per unit of area multiplied by the radius of curvature there; and also that the bed pressure at any point is equal to the horizontal thrust multiplied by the secant of the angle the curve makes with the horizon at that point. This rule is thoroughly mathematical and true for arches of equilibrium; and the author exhibited an instructive model of an arch equilibrated, and showed by inverting it, and suspending a chain weighted by steel rods representing the loads at each point, that the latter coincided with the road line. But the engineer‐architect has to do with arches in which the element of friction enters; the stones are cemented, and therefore the theory, however beautiful, does not hold good in every case. Instead of the separate arch stones or voussoirs, he has to deal with segments of the arch which turn upon certain edges. Thus an arch which fails breaks into four parts, the crown sinks, and the haunches rise, the joints at those points opening. One of the questions to decide is the points at which rupture occurs, that being found to find out what horizontal pressure each of those lower segments have to sustain. From knowing the thrust and its point of action, the stability of the arch will depend on the mass and weight of the pier. The experiments of Rondelet and others have proved that the voussoirs unite into segments of the arch, and tend to overturn the abutment, acting rather as levers than wedges. He found, also, that the greatest thrust was in arches with an even number of voussoirs or a point at the vertex; that a keystone lessened the thrust. Nevertheless, the theory of equilibration should be known by all architects and bridge builders.

In alluding to the materials, the author showed the impossibility of dressing and bedding stones accurately. Practically, the stone built arch is difficult to execute with precision. The facing stones only are cut to the true curve, the backing being filled in with rubble and roughly executed. With brickwork the bricks can be all bedded in cement, being more convenient for handling, and a vitrified brick is equal at least to the best stone in resistance. The brick arch should be built in vertical bond, not in rings. Mr. Richardson finds that, taking the safe load in cement at 5 cwt. upon the square inch, an arch 15 in. thick at the springing and 12⅚ at the crown is sufficient for a span of 85 feet with a rise of ⅛ of the span. He says: “As all loads and thrusts on such an arch are in direct proportion, if each dimension were multiplied by four, we should have a span of 340 feet with a rise of 42 feet and an arch thickness of 5 feet. This 5 feet thickness would give a sufficient margin of safety for the moving load, because 5 feet is only the necessary thickness at the springing, while that at the crown would be 9 in. less. The total weight of this bridge would be 100,000 tons.” Ring‐built arches are advisedly objected to, as the rings tend to separate when any settlement takes place. Mr. Richardson does not rely too much on friction, and he is right. There can be no scientific arch construction that is not based on the principle of equilibrium, the line of thrust being kept within the middle third of the arch thickness; and in designing arches of brick or stone the engineer should always be able by diagram to satisfy himself of this condition. Whenever the line of thrust passes close to the lower edge of the arch ring at the haunches, there must be undue pressure and a tendency to open at the other edge. In other words, the arch is inclined to drop at the crown. When it passes out of the arch, failure must take place sooner or later. Instead of first deciding upon the curve and road line, as is frequently done, the right course is to find the line of thrust for the given span and loading, and then make the arch conform as nearly as possible to this line. We agree with the opinion that brickwork, if correctly applied, would be found to excel iron construction in strength, durability, and economy—certainly in appearance. In the construction of masonry arches, sufficient care is not always bestowed upon the drainage of the arches—a cause, we imagine, of many failures.—Building News.

Gilbert Sheffield, a Warren County, N. Y., lumberman, is one of the men who believes in using his men well, and in doing something to relieve the tedium of life in the woods. He has 35 men employed at Tahawus, in Essex County, and says that for the past two years it has been his practice to furnish them with copies of the prominent newspapers, so that when they left camp they were as well informed regarding current events as when they went in.

A new form of chimes for churches is being introduced in England, which are said to give much satisfaction. They consist of a series of metallic tubes suspended from a beam, as shown in our engraving. They are struck by hammers, are very resonant, loud, and pleasing. A correspondent of thePall Mall Gazette, speaking of their effect, says: “The music of many tuneful bells, harmonious, ever changing, lending themselves to any simple air, easy of management, and mellowed as the sound of cathedral bells.... Such music I have heard at Coventry.”

The new invention which goes under the name of tube chimes is a musical chime in which metal tubes instead of bells are employed. The tube chimes can be used for any purpose that bells are used for, and besides are an economical substitute for bells. They are remarkable also for a depth and richness of tone which one does not expect to find except in high class cathedral bells. A tube chime for a church belfry is especially suitable. The carrying power is not quite equal to that of bells. A chime was lately set up in the tower of one of the Dorsetshire churches which has pleased all concerned. Rung for the first time on occasion of the harvest festival, it caused both delight and surprise by the sweet and melodious tones it gave out. The invention has not long been brought under public notice, but the demand for household octaves in place of the inharmonious gong is already very large. Mr. Harrington has a taste for music, and the idea of adapting tubes of metal for the musical purposes of bells is no new one. It has taken, though, many years of experiment and study to perfect the principle. One difficulty, which was a great obstacle in the way, may be alluded to. The large chimes are rung by bell ropes, but, contrary to the plan of bells, there is an external hammer instead of the internal clapper. If the hammers were made of sufficient hardness to prevent wear and tear, the chime lost its sweet tones and became harsh. If the hammers were less hard, they would constantly require to be replaced. Fortunately, that difficulty, like many others, has been satisfactorily got over. The chimes can be, it should be noted, tuned to any desired pitch, and Messrs. Harrington & Co. are probably warranted when they say: “The introduction of this invention will, we are assured, mark the commencement of a new era in connection with church bells and carillons, chimes for clocks of all sizes, dinner calls and gongs, and all mechanisms in which musical bells are used or required, and in some of these departments bids fair to work a complete revolution.”—The Architect.

THE NEW TUBE CHIMES.

At the residence of Sir Harry Verney, Claydon House, Buckinghamshire, a deputation from the Working Men’s Club of Whatstandwell, Derbyshire, recently waited on Miss Florence Nightingale, for the purpose of presenting to her an oil painting, by Mr. E. Crosland, of her late home, Lea Hurst, as a token of their esteem, and in recognition of the great interest taken by her in that institution. The deputation, consisting of Mr. F. C. Iveson, Mr. Crosland, the artist, and Mr. W. Peacock, assured Miss Nightingale of the love felt for her by all classes of people at Whatstandwell and in that district, and of their gratitude for her kindness and help in every good work. Miss Nightingale, in thanking them for the present, which she admired very much, expressed her continued great interest in the institution and its members, and assured them of her hopes for its welfare. The deputation were entertained at Claydon House by Sir Harry and Lady Verney. We are permitted to copy the picture of Lea Hurst in our engraving, using a photograph taken by Mr. J. Schmidt, of Belper.

LEA HURST, DERBYSHIRE, THE HOME OF MISS FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE.

Miss Florence Nightingale is a lady whose name has been deservedly honored in England since the Crimean war and has become the symbol of a particular type of personal efforts in the service of afflicted humanity. She was born at Florence, in May, 1820, youngest daughter and coheiress of W. E. Nightingale, Esq., of Lea Hurst, Derbyshire, and Embley Park, Hampshire. She devoted her attention to the working of schools for the poor, juvenile reformatories, and hospitals, inspecting many such institutions on the Continent, and residing, in 1851, with the Protestant Sisters of Mercy at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine. She next bestowed her care and gifts of her money on the London Governesses’ Sanatorium in Harley street. During the Crimean war, in 1854, when the inefficient state of our military hospitals in the East demanded instant reform, the hospital at Scutari, opposite Constantinople, was established for the relief of sick and wounded British soldiers and prisoners. It was resolved to form a select band of volunteer lady superintendents and female nurses for this and other army hospitals. At the request of the Secretary of State for the War Department, Mr. Sidney Herbert, afterward Lord Herbert of Lea, Miss Nightingale undertook the task of organizing and directing this service, which she performed in a manner universally admired, and which earned her the personal friendship of the Queen, with many public and private expressions of gratitude and esteem. A testimonial fund amounting to $250,000 was subscribed in recognition of her patriotic and benevolent work, and was, at her special desire, applied to create and maintain an institution for the training of nurses. Miss Nightingale’s impaired health, for many years past, has debarred her from active public exertions but she has continued to study the plans and operations of those charitable agencies on which she is a high authority, and has written brief treatises on subjects of much practical importance. Her “Notes on Hospitals,” printed in 1859; “Notes on Nursing,” in 1860; and “Notes on Lying‐in Institutions,” and on the training of midwives and midwifery nurses, in 1871, were of considerable utility. She also wrote, in 1863, valuable observations on the sanitary condition of the army in India, and has furnished to the War Office useful reports and suggestions concerning the army medical department.—Illustrated London News.

In order to use paints and oils economically, a clear understanding of their purpose and action is absolutely necessary. Linseed oil is said to “dry” after being applied. That is only partially true. It rather oxidizes and changes to a tough, gummy substance not unlike hard glue. This action is accelerated by the use of “driers,” as they are called. But in no case does it give the same results as when left to dry of its own free will. The carbonate of lead or mineral which is added to the oil gives the color and assists in making up the body. The life of the paint is the oil, and when it is oxidized, it alone is the binding element. Upon it depends the durability of the paint. A piece of wood dipped in linseed oil and hung up to dry, or oxidize, in the air, will soon become covered with a beautiful translucent film of oxidized oil, which grows harder daily. It will take a high polish and preserve the wood. Another piece dipped in carbonate of lead, or mineral, mixed in turpentine, or any fluid to allow it to spread evenly over the surface, will when dry have a dead or flat color without polish or body to bind it together, and the slightest abrasion will remove portions of it. All painting is done either with pure oils or with the admixture of a fluid like turpentine, which assists in the distribution of the mineral, but does not add to the body. When the surface of wood has been covered with a thick coating of oxidized oil, it can be washed and rubbed to look clean and polished. Boats, when of a light color, are often painted with a mixture containing much turpentine, in order that all marks may be removed with a little beach sand, by rubbing off the mineral, which is not bound together securely by oil, but only loosely by turpentine. Car builders now often paint their cars or varnish them a second time soon after the first, say after about six months’ run. This gives them a good coat of oxidized oil to withstand the weather and preserve the wood. A few coats applied within short intervals produce a fine covering which is very durable and will take a polish after washing.—Master Mechanic.

An interesting scene was caused recently by the blowing up of the two immense chimneys on Borsig’s machine works in Berlin. A large number of spectators were present to witness the ceremony, including several officers of the army, the trustees of the Borsig estates, and the employes of the works. Punctually at five minutes past six P. M., the signal to “Look out!” was given; then came the word of command, “Fire!” and at this moment the vast chimney, towering to a height of say 120 feet 9 inches, quietly collapsed. The noise occasioned by the fall was not very great, ditches two meters in breadth having been dug all round the chimney and filled with straw. For blowing up this colossus, which consisted of 98,000 bricks and was topped with a heavy iron cap weighing twenty‐five centners, only 24 kilos of dynamite were employed. Photographs were taken of the chimney before it fell, and also as it was in the act of falling, by an officer of the Commission for Experimenting with Explosives. The second chimney standing about 80 feet high, was blasted with gun cotton, of which 35 kilos were required.

The institution of the factory system changed the workshop home of the domestic system to the home proper by transferring work to the factory. As a result, the homes of the operatives under the factory system have undergone a great change, and are still undergoing changes, which are making the English significance of the word “home” a reality to the poorest. It is perfectly true that in every large factory town one can find loathsome dwellings occupied by groups of persons called families. In most factory towns, both in America and Europe, it is easy to find dwellings occupied by factory operatives which are a disgrace to the owners and the municipality. Yet, taking the operative population of such towns as a class, they are very comfortably housed, and about as well housed in one country as another. The personal inspection of more than 1,000 homes of factory operatives leads Mr. Carroll D. Wright to this conclusion, he having written a special report on the “Factory System of the United States” for the Census Bureau.

British factory houses being floored with stone, as a rule, present a cold and cheerless look. The dimensions of the British house are much smaller than factory houses in America. The tenements of three rooms have much less space than tenements of three rooms here. This is generally true of all European factory towns. But the houses of the operatives are, as a rule, separate ones, the tenement house being quite unknown except where what is termed the “model workingmen’s houses” are being tried. The boarding house is not an institution for factory operatives.

OPERATIVE’S HOUSE AT WILLIMANTIC FACTORIES.Larger image(218 kB)

OPERATIVE’S HOUSE AT WILLIMANTIC FACTORIES.

Larger image(218 kB)

At Saltaire, near Bradford, the homes of the work‐people are excellent; rents vary from $30 to $100 per year for three to five room houses. The houses are neat, tidy, and prettily furnished. At Queensbury, where John Foster & Son have works, the weavers earn 15 to 18 shillings per week full run, and the rents are 84 cents per week for three rooms. Some of the best houses in England are at Copley village, in Halifax, built by James Akroyd & Sons. They rent three rooms for £10 per year, and the operatives are helped to acquire a freehold. The Crowleys at Halifax employ 5,000 people, who have good houses. The houses at Salford and Manchester are not so good. The factories at Paisley are excellent evidences of the good influence which arises from proper interest in employes. The works of the Messrs. Clark and Messrs. Coates are model establishments and the influence of model works extends to the houses of the people employed, which are here very comfortable. Rents vary from 72 cents to $2 per week, according to number of rooms.

In Glasgow no cellarages can now be found. The operatives have gone to the suburbs, where they have changed their cramped city abodes for clean and light houses. Belfast, Ireland, is improving the dwellings of the linen factory operatives. The houses are tidy, and rents are from 48 to 60 cents per week for four rooms. There are houses with flats in Belfast. In the west and east of Scotland the operatives live very largely in flats; rents in Dundee and Dunfermline being for two rooms from $15 to $30 per year, and for three or four rooms from $30 to $50 per year.

Among the most substantial houses for workingmen will be found those of Herr Krupp, in Essen, Rhenish Prussia. By his system of employment he has the selection of the best mechanics in Europe. This system comprehends all the advantages to be found in model industrial establishments, including excellent tenements and gardens at low rents. A foreman, a gun‐maker, earning $45 per month, receives four rooms, a drying place on the roof, a cellar, and a garden for $45 per year. A workman with wages at 75 cents per day pays $37 per year for three large rooms, drying place, cellar, and garden. There are fair tenements, in two or three story blocks, situated in colonies just outside the towns. For $100 per year, one can obtain a most excellent tenement of seven large rooms, cellar, garden, etc. The houses in the colonies are owned by Herr Krupp. In fact, he believes that he receives better results by owning everything, and by being able thereby to control the sanitary surroundings of the dwellings of his people. These colonies, each having its name, are laid out with park, schools, churches, supply stores, etc. The housing of the single men is on the barrack plan.

It may be stated that the houses in Great Britain and on the Continent are of stone or brick, as the locality may afford, and the neat wood cottage of America cannot be found. It is quite impossible to compare the houses of European factory operatives with those of the same class in America. The great mass of the former are, generally speaking, quite as well housed as the latter, so far as the quality of the house is concerned; but so far as quantity of room and excellence of living are concerned, the advantage is with the operatives of America. When the operative of this country steps out of the boarding or the tenement house, he steps into an individual home the equal of which cannot be found in the factory towns of the Old World.

The cottage of the American factory operative, when he sees fit to occupy one, is superior to the cottage of the workingman of any other country. It is most gratifying to know that the individual homes are not only increasing in number in this country, but they are increasing in influence. In all the leading factory towns this is the course of progress.

The plates we give on this page represent one of the styles of modern cottages built by the Willimantic Linen Co., of Willimantic, Conn. With each cottage is quite a garden of several thousand feet of land. The rent is from $60 to $125 per year. These houses are located in such a way as to exhibit variety of styles; that is, two of like architecture are never placed side by side. The company has a large number of these houses occupied by operators and overseers. The cuts show the front and side elevations, and the plans of the two floors. These are given as a type of the detached workingmen’s homes used in this country.—Min. and Sci. Press.

Mr. A. Lindsay Miller, in theBuilding News, recommends for theaters and other public buildings the use of gangways instead of stairs.

In public works, especially dye works, they will not use the stairs, but gain access to the several floors by gangways, with a rise of about 5 ft. in 12 ft. or 13 ft. of length, and any one watching the speed and ease with which the workers run from floor to floor would at once understand why staircases are not used. Of course, architecturally, they have not the dignity of the staircase; but, in theaters and music halls, dignity is secondary to security. The advantage of the gangway is easily explained.

In going down a stair, each step, or, in a hurry, each second step, must be taken, and the slightest mistake throws the person down. In a stair 12 ft. long, at least six different steps require to be taken. In the gangway of the same length, a person in a hurry, or in the excitement of a panic, would take it in two bounds, and with perfect safety.

A number of experiments were conducted lately at the works of Messrs. Heenan & Froude, Manchester, with a new explosive, called “roburite,” which is manufactured in Germany, and is about to be introduced into this country for use in blasting operations. The composition and process of manufacture of this explosive are kept secret, but we understand that it consists of two non‐explosive and perfectly harmless substances, of such a nature that they may be stored or transported without special precautions or restrictions. These two substances may be mixed together when required, and, in combination, become roburite, a yellowish compound, which will bear rough handling with safety. We understand that an intense heat is necessary to explode it. In order to prove this, the explosive was placed, in the experiments in question, between two plates, which were freely rubbed together and hammered; and a small quantity thrown upon a fire was merely consumed, without exploding.

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